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VALAMBROSA 

Made  in  Florence,  Italy,  by  Wm.  H.  Phillips 

(See  Page  369) 


Complete  ^elf'Snieitnictfng  Hibtari? 
of  ^tactical  ^i^otogtap)^^ 


VOLUME  I 

Elementary  Phjjytography 


J.  B.  SCHRIEVER 

Editor-in-  Chief 


f^opular  tuition 


2^. 


PUBLISHED  BY 

9lmeruan  ^cf)ool  of  2lrt  anii  |^i)otograp{)p 


SCRANTON,  PA.,  U.  S.  A. 
1909 


COPYKIOHT,  1909,  BT 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  ART  AND  PHOTOGRAPHY, 
ScRANTON,  Pa.,  U.  S.  a. 

Emtbkbo  at  Stationbrs'  Hall,  London,  England 
All  rights  and  translations  reserved 


J.  B.  SCHRIEVER 

President   American    School    of  Art   and    Photography,   Editor-in-Chief  of  the 

Complete  Self-Instructing  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 


SRLF 

m 

5140617 


PREFACE 


BACK  in  the  70's  of  the  last  century— not  so  many 
years  ago,  after  all — photography  was  in  its  infancy 
and  but  little  practiced  by  the  general  public. 
The  few  professionals  who  made  it  their  regular 
business  prepared  most  of  their  own  materials,  plates, 
papers,  etc.,  and  the  results  were  frequently  very  un- 
certain, as  they  depended  largely  upon  local  con- 
ditions, and  on  the  skill  and  knowledge  of  the  oper- 
ator. Photography  as  applied  today  to  the  arts  and 
sciences  was  unheard  of.  Now,  there  is  hardly  a  science, 
industry,  or  enterprise  of  any  account  undertaken  that 
photography,  in  some  form  or  other,  does  not  enter  into. 
It  is  invaluable  as  an  aid  to  research,  study,  and  to  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge.  It  has  extended  its  influence  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  a  popular  science,  into  a  world-embrac- 
ing industry.  It  is  an  Art;  it  is  a  part  of  every  science. 
It  has  revolutionized  the  art  of  printing.  The  magazine 
and  book  illustrations,  the  depicting  of  current  events  in 
the  newspapers,  the  beautiful  half-tones,  photogravures  and 
three  color  reproductions  that  have  brought  the  world's 
master  pieces  of  Art  into  our  homes,  are  all  the  result 
of  photographic  process  as  applied  to  printing.  Its  products 
are  the  only  universal  language,  understood  by  all  the  people 
of  the  earth.  It  has  preserved,  in  facsimile,  the  world's 
most  valuable  manuscripts.     In  Medicine  and  Surgery,  a 


8  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

greater  knowledge  of  the  human  body  and  its  component 
parts  has  been  made  possible  by  X-ray  Photography  and 
Photo-Micrography.    With  the  modern  dry  plates,  sensitive 
to  all  or  any  desired  colors,  photography  has  become  an 
invaluable  ally  to  the  microscope.    In  Chemistry,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Crookes,  by  the  aid  of  photospectroscopy  and  the  ortho- 
chromatic  plate,  has  added  a  new  metal,  monium,  to  the 
list  of  elements.     In  Botany,  the  kinetoscope  has  recorded 
the  varying  phases  of  growing  plants.    The  science  of  Geol- 
ogy has  been  enriched  by  photography  in  many  ways,  while 
Meteorology  has  been  advanced  by  the  study  of  lightning 
discharges,  and  the  clouds,  in  photographs.    In  Astronomy, 
photographic  plates  of  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  have 
given  us  information  heretofore  unattainable  by  telescope 
alone.     Nebulae,  asteroids,  comets  and  meteors  have  been 
studied;    their  form,  detail  and  conditions  have  been  re- 
vealed ;  and  the  astronomer,  who  could  not  catch  the  satel- 
lite of  Neptune  with  his  telescope,  has  seen  it,  with  the  rings 
of  Saturn,  fixed  upon  his  plate.     With  the  spectroscope, 
photography  has  helped  in  the  discovery  of  variable  stars, 
and  binaries  of  the  shortest  periods  have  been  detected  and 
classified  by  it.     In  Schools  and  Colleges  it  is  a  valuable 
educational  appliance.     In  the  Industries,  the  application 
of  photography   is   almost   unlimited.     Its   application   to 
the  manufacture  of  tapestries,  by  furnishing  cards  for  the 
Jacquard  loom,  thus  putting  them  within  reach  of  the  ordin- 
ary man,  is  well  known.    As  evidence  in  detecting  forgeries, 
duplicated  documents,  identifying  criminals,  and  in  various 
other  ways,  the  Courts  of  all  countries  accept  the  photo- 
graph.    In  the  late  Russo-Japanese  war,  the  camera  fur- 
nished valuable  records.     In  fact,  the  application  of  pho- 
tography extends  to  almost  every  branch  of  human  endeavor. 


Preface,  9 

Its  greatest  improvements  are  yet  to  come.  No  man  or 
woman,  competing  seriously  for  the  prizes  of  life,  can  afford 
to  be  without  some  knowledge,  at  least,  of  the  Art-science. 
Competition,  never  so  sharp  as  now,  demands  that  all  avail 
themselves  of  the  advantages  gained  by  a  scientific  and 
technical  training,  such  as  the  making  of  photographs 
will  give.  Apart  from  its  value  as  an  aid  to  success,  socially 
and  financially,  there  is  no  more  delightful  and  refined 
pursuit  than  the  making  of  pictures  by  photography.  The 
aesthetic  element  in  it  lightens  the  burdens  of  life  and 
sweetens  existence  here  below  for  those  who  appreciate  it 
rightly ;  and  it  is  for  this  purpose,  and  to  help  others  study 
and  master  this  science,  that  the  "Complete  Self-Instructing 
Library  of  Practical  Photography"  is  published. 


OBIGIN  OF  THE  LIBRABY 


THE  publication  of  these  volumes  is  our  response  to  a 
universal  request  probably  never  exceeded  in  the 
annals  of  technical  education. 

Down  through  the  past  successful  years  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Art  and  Photography,  the  daily  intercourse 
with  its  thousands  of  students  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
has  been  incessantly  punctuated  with  earnest  requests  for 
a  standard  library  of  photography. 

It  was  generally  recognized  that  from  no  other  source 
could  there  emanate  such  a  comprehensive  contribution 
to  photographic  advancement. 

This  library  is  the  result  of  the  concentrated  exper- 
ience of  every  department  of  the  American  School  of  Art 
and  Photography  in  the  instruction  of  its  vast  number  of 
students  residing  in  every  section  of  the  civilized  earth — 
an  experience  which  enables  the  treatment  of  every  feature 
of  camera  craft  with  a  knowledge  of  world-wide  conditions. 

Of  course,  in  the  preparation  of  such  a  voluminous 
work  of  education  and  reference,  constant  recourse  has  been 
had  to  the  knowledge  of  the  highly  trained  specialists  who 
assist  in  the  operation  of  the  far-reaching  educational  sys- 
tem of  the  American  School  of  Art  and  Photography, 

The  illustrations  supplied  for  this  library  have  been 
furnished  by  the  leading  professional  and  amateur  pho- 
tographers of  the  country.  They  present  an  admirable 
object  lesson  and  a  good  history  of  the  art  of  photography 
as  it  is  practiced  today  in  the  United  States. 

Interesting  data  regarding  the  method  of  their  pro- 
duction and  how  to  understand  and  enjoy  them  will  be 
found  at  the  end  of  each  volume. 


INTBODUCTION 


THE  "Complete  Self-Instructing  Library  of  Practical 
Photography"  is  a  series  of  ten  volumes  devoted 
to  the  study  of  photography  in  all  its  branches.  As 
the  title  indicates,  it  is  a  complete  up-to-date  working  library 
on  the  practice  of  photography  both  as  a  science  and  an  art. 
These  volumes  are  the  outcome  of  years  of  experience  in 
teaching  thousands  of  ambitious  workers  in  photography 
by  the  American  School  of  Art  and  Photography,  of  Scran- 
ton,  Pa, 

Volume  1,  "A  Complete  Handbook  on  Elementary  Pho- 
tography," was  written  specially  for  the  beginner,  who  is 
presumably  ignorant  of  photography  and  the  laws  by  which 
it  is  governed.  He  is  taken,  by  easy  stages,  through  all  its 
branches — from  the  first  principles  of  the  art  to  its  higher 
laws  and  methods.  The  volume  contains  all  that  the  begin- 
ner would  most  naturally  need  to  know  at  the  start  of  his 
experience  as  an  amateur  photographer.  In  a  series  of  prac- 
tical lessons,  it  treats  of  the  various  types  of  cameras,  the 
action  of  light,  negatives  from  plates  and  films,  exposure, 
development,  printing,  toning,  trimming  and  mounting  pho- 
tographs. The  treatment  is  not  by  any  means  exhaustive, 
but  is  planned  only  to  enable  the  beginner  to  get  a  good 
general  idea  of  the  subject.  Those  who  want  a  greater 
knowledge  and  a  more  scientific  grasp  of  the  subject,  will 
find  the  theoretical  side  exhaustively  treated  in  the  subse- 


14  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

quent  volumes  of  the  library.  Above  all  else  the  instruction 
imparted  is  absolutely  practical. 

A  special  feature  of  this  volume,  and  one  worthy  of  close 
attention,  is  the  data  covering  difficulties  and  failures  in  pho- 
tography of  the  thousands  of  students  and  correspondents  of 
the  school.  These  difficulties  have  been  condensed  and  re- 
vised by  the  instruction  department  under  the  direction  of 
President  Schriever. 

Not  without  cause,  then,  it  is  claimed  and  expected,  that 
the  reader,  after  completing  the  lessons  of  this  volume,  will 
have  a  good  fundamental  training  in  photography  and  will 
be  able  to  make  and  finish  salable  pictures. 

To  the  practical  worker  in  photography  the  immense 
value  of  these  difficulties,  in  convenient  ready  reference 
form,  will  be  at  once  apparent.  They  cover  the  troubles  of 
thousands  of  workers,  instead  of  the  experience  of  only  a  few 
photographers,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  most  handbooks. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

VOLUME   I 


FAGB 

Preface  

Origin  of  Library 

Introduction 

CHAPTER   I 
The  Meaning  of  Photography — Its  History 2^ 

CHAPTER     H 
The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It 41 

CHAPTER   III 
How  to  Proceed   81 

CHAPTER   IV 
Beginners'  Difficulties  97 

CHAPTER   V 
Kodaks  and  Films  109 

CHAPTER  VI 
Kodaks  and  Films — Difficulties    139 

CHAPTER  VII 
Tank  Development  for  Films.    No  Dark-Room  Nec- 
essary     14s 

CHAPTER   VIII 
Preparing  Chemicals  :  Developing  With  Pyro 155 

CHAPTER   IX 
General  Hints  on  Development 165 

CHAPTER   X 
Intensifying  and  Reducing 175 

ST 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

CAPTER   XI 
Appearance  of  Negatives  With  Different  Exposures.  .  i8i 

CHAPTER   XII 
Elementary  Tank  Development 187 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Photographic  Printing 201 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Blue    Print   (Ferro-Prussiate)    Sensitizing — Paper, 

Cloth,  Silk,  Etc 209 

CHAPTER   XV 

Gelatin  Printing-Out  Paper 215 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Printing  and  Toning — Difficulties 229 

CHAPTER  XVII 
Developing  or  "Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades  . . .  233 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
Developing  Papers — Difficulties 253 

CHAPTER  XIX 
Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper 255 

CHAPTER  XX 
Aristo  Gold  Paper 259 

CHAPTER  XXI 
Aristo  Carbon  Sepia 263 

CHAPTER  XXII 
Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper 265 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
Kallitype  Process   271 

CHAPTER  XXIV 
Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging 279 

CHAPTER  XXV 
Trimming  and  Mounting 293 

CHAPTER  XXVI 
Supplementary  Lenses  for  Hand  Cameras 301 


CONTENTS.  xvli 

CHAPTER   XXVII 
Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  Work 309 

CHAFER   XXVIII 

Practical  Use  of  the  Camera 321 

Architectural  and  Landscape  Photography  for  Beginners. 

CHAPTER   XXIX 
Elementary  Snow  Photography 337 

CHAPTER   XXX 
Elementary  Flashlight  Photography 345 

CHAPTER   XXXI 
The  Evolution  of  the  Dark-Room  From  a  Bath- 
Room,  by  Richard  Hines,  Jr 355 

CHAPTER   XXXII 
My  Dark-Room,  by  Ulysses  G.  Orr 363 

CHAPTER   XXXIII 
How  THE  Studies  Illustrating  This  Volume  Were 
Made  369 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTBATIONS. 

VOLUME  I. 


II.LU8.  PAK. 

MUMBSR                                                           TITI.X                                                 PACK  KBF. 

A  Modern  Camera — Bellows  Extension 45 

A  Modern  Camera — Bed  Dropped  and  Wide- 
Angle  Attachment  in  Use 45 

Panoramic  Camera   45 

1  Box  Camera  46  42 

2  Folding  Camera   46  44 

3  Pocket  Film  Kodak   46  45 

4  Film   Plate  Camera 46  46 

5  Rotary  Shutter  , 53  53 

6  Single  Valve   Shutter 53  54 

7  Double  Valve  Shutter  53  55 

8  Automatic  Shutter 53  56 

9  Result  of  Tipping  Camera  Without  Proper 

Adjustment  of  Swing-back 71  85 

10  Adjustable  Tripod  71  90 

11  Inserting  Slide  the  Right  Way 71  93 

12  Inserting  Slide  the  Wrong  Way 71  93 

13  Dark-Room  Lamp 72  99 

14  Roll  of  Film "jz 

15  A  Temporary  Dark-Room 72  98 

16  An  Inexpensive  Dark-Room  Sink 75  98 

17  Loading  the  Plate  Holder 75  103 

18  Light  Building  Properly  Photographed 83  109 

19  Dark  Building  Improperly  Photographed  ...  83  109 


n  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

ILLUS.  I*^*- 

NUMBER                                                         TITLB                                                   I'AGB  RBF. 

20  Effect  of  Proper  Angle  of  Light 84  1 1 1 

21  Illustrating  the  Effect  of  Blistering 84  129 

23  Showing  the  Result  of  Uneven  Development  93  131 

22  Showing  the  Result  of  Uneven  Development  93  131 

24  Developing  Roll  Film  in  Tray 121  199 

25  Ingento  Film  Trough 122  200 

26  Film  Pack  Adapter 131  215 

26a  .Example  of  Fogging — Failure  to  Wind  Film 

Tightly   131  229 

2.^  Eastman  Film  Tank 147  248 

28  Winding  Box  147  254 

29  Premo  Film  Tank 147  259 

30  Hydrometer 156  268 

31  Advantage   of  Reducing   Thick   Negatives — 

Half  a  Plate  Reduced 179  304 

32  Result  of  Intensifying  Thin,  Flat  Negatives 

179  306 

33  Print  from  a  Correctly  Exposed  and  Devel- 

oped Negative , 180  315 

34  Negative  from  Which  Illustration  No.   33 

Was  Printed   180  315 

35  Print  from  Over-Exposed,  Though  Correctly 

Developed  Negative 183  319 

36  A  Correctly  Developed,  Over-Exposed  Nega- 

tive    183  320 

37  Print  from  Under-Exposed  and  Correctly  De- 

veloped Negative 184  323 

38  An  Under-Exposed,  Correctly  Developed  Neg- 

ative    184  324 

39  Eastman  Plate  Tank — Loading  Block 189  331 

40  Eastman  Plate  Tank — Loading 189  331 

41  Eastman  Plate  Tank — Lowering  Rack  Into 

Solution   Cup 190  331 

42  Eastman  Plate  Tank — Fastening  Cover 190  332 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  ni 

ILLUS.  PAR, 

NUMBER                                                         TITLK                                                   PACB  RBF. 

43  Eastman  Plate  Tank — Removing  Plates  from 

Rack  192  335 

44  Eastman    Plate    Tank — Separating    Plates 

After  Removal  from  Rack 192  335 

45  Ingento  Automatic  Developing  Tank,  Style 

A 193  336 

46  Ingento  Automatic  Developing  Tank,  Style 

B 193  336 

47  Ingento  Changing  Bag 193  339 

48  Printing  Frame 203  352 

49  Dusting  Plate  in  Printing  Frame 203  353 

50  Loading  Printing  Frame 203  354 

51  Printing  Frame  in  Position 204  354 

52  Sensitizing  the  Paper — Lowering  Onto  the 

Bath   211  370 

53  Sensitizing  the  Paper — Removing  Air-Bells. 211  370 

54  Sliding  Prints  from  Box  Cover  Into  Toning 

Bath  204  391 

55  Printing  At  End  of  Table 243  449 

56  Developing  At  Table 243  449 

57  Applying  Paste  To  Back  of  Print 244  468 

58  Method  of  Picking  Up  Prints  After  Apply- 

ing Paste 244  468 

59  Bringing  Paste  Side  of  Print  Into  Contact 

With  Mount 244  468 

60  Brownie  Enlarging  Camera 281  561 

61  Brownie  Enlarging  Camera — Sectional  View 

281  561 

62  Ingento  Daylight  Enlarger  No.  i 281  562 

63  Ingento  Folding  Daylight  Enlarger  No.  2. .  .281  563 

64  No.  I  Kodak  Enlarging  Camera 281  564 

65  Illuminating  the  Negative 285  568 

66  Prints  of  One  Size  On  Mounts  of  Varying 

Sizes   295  599 

67  Ideal  Photo  Optical  Outfit 303  606 


^^ 


/iX 


aH  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

ILLUS.  PAK. 

ITDMBBR                                                   TTTX.B                                                   PAGB  RBF. 

68  Kodak  Portrait  Lens 303  618 

69  Church 323  649 

70  Low  Horizon  Line  Emphasizing  Size  of  Build- 

ing (School  House) 323  649 

71  Street  Scene     324  651 

^2  An  Oiu)inary  Landscape 324  654 

73  Landscape  Setting  for  Portrait  Study 327  655 

74  A  Photograph  Which  Lacks  the  Expression 

OF  an  Idea 327  656 

75  A  Marine  Snap-Shot 328  657 

76  Importance  of  Position  in  Snap  Shots 331  658 

y;^  Example  of  Faulty  Composition 331  659 

78  A  Pleasing  Landscape  Study 332  662 

79  Floor  Plan — ^Dark-Room 364 


STUDIES  AND  HOW  THEY  WERE 
PRODUCED. 


VOLUME  I. 


STUDY 

number          titlb 
Valambrosa 

AUTHOR 

Wm.  H  Phillips 

HOW 

STUDY  MADB 
PAGB       PAGB 

Frontispiece 

I  Street  Performance 

Grace  E.  Mounts    25 

369 

2  Eventide 

G.  A.  Brandt 

57 

3  At  the  Sea  Shore 

J.  S.  Neary 

III 

369 

4  Home  Sweet  Home 

Grace  E.  Mounts  125 

370 

5  The  After  Glow 

H.  H.  Boyce 

135 

370 

6  Winter  Afternoon 

K.  T.  Krantz 

171 

7  The  Effort 

C.  F.  Clark 

219 

370 

8  In  the  Gloaming 

Geo.  H.  Schber, 

M.D. 

9  Wading  the  Stream 

John  Chislett 

235 
249 

370 
371 

ID  A  Winter  Stream 

R.  E.  Weeks 

297 

371 

II  January  Frost 

Sweet   Bros. 

339 

372 

12  Snow  Scene 

S.  I.  Carpenter 

357 

ssHi 


to 
Crq 


CHAPTER  I. 
The   Meaning  of  Photography — Its   History. 

1.  Photography  is  the  art  of  producing  images  of 
objects  by  the  agency  of  light.  Such  images  may  be  made 
on  many  different  materials  by  direct  contact  of  the  object 
to  be  imaged  with  a  sensitive  surface ;  or  the  image  may  be 
projected  on  the  sensitive  surface,  by  the  aid  of  a  lens. 
The  underlying  principle  is  the  same  in  both  cases,  though 
the  manipulations  are  different.  The  first  mentioned 
method  is  that  characteristically  used  in  photographic 
printing  processes;  the  second  in  the  making  of  photo- 
graphic negatives. 

2.  The  effect  of  light  on  certain  substances  is  to  induce 
chemical  changes  in  them  which  alter  their  properties. 
Many  hundred  such  substances  have  been  noted,  and  others 
are  being  added  to  the  list  continually.  Those  which  are 
useful  in  photography  may  be  roughly  grouped  under  the 
general  heads  of  first,  gums  and  resins;  second,  the  salts 
of  various  metals,  chiefly  those  of  the  silver-platinum  group. 

3.  A  familiar  example  of  the  chemical  action  of  light 
is  the  fading  of  colored  paper  in  parts  exposed  to  sunlight, 
while  protected  parts  are  unchanged  from  the  original  hue. 
Instead  of  fading,  or  becoming  lighter,  the  reverse  effect 
may  take  place,  the  exposed  parts  becoming  darker.  These 
results  are  due  to  some  chemical  employed  in  making  or  in 

27 


28  Library^  of  Practical  Photography. 

tinting  the  paper.  The  "Indelible  Ink"  used  in  marking 
white  cloth  is  colorless  when  fresh,  and  turns  black  by 
exposure  to  light.  This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
"ink"  really  consists  of  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  a  salt 
very  readily  darkened  by  light. 

4.  If  a  freshly  made  solution  of  gum  arable  in  water 
is  made  and  enough  to  form  a  thin  film  is  poured  into  a 
flat-bottomed  saucer,  it  may  be  allowed  to  dry  in  the  dark. 
Place  a  coin  in  the  center  of  the  dried  film,  and  set  the  dish 
where  it  will  receive  the  overhead  rays  of  the  sun  for  an 
hour  at  mid-day.  If  then  the  coin  be  removed,  and  the 
film  be  held  under  a  gentle  flow  of  luke-warm  water,  the 
circular  patch  of  gum  that  was  underneath  the  coin,  and 
thus  protected  from  the  light,  will  readily  dissolve  and  be 
washed  away.  The  remainder  which  received  the  full  rays 
of  the  sun  no  longer  dissolves  readily,  but  requires  warmer 
water  or  a  longer  washing  to  remove  it.  In  this  case  the 
action  of  light  has  altered  the  property  of  solubility,  al- 
though this  alteration  was  not  outwardly  apparent,  but 
"developed"  only  when  the  luke-warm  water  was  applied. 

5.  If  lampblack  had  been  mixed  with  the  gum  arable 
solution,  and  the  washing  arrested  when  the  soluble  part 
was  gone,  the  image  would  be  white  (the  color  of  the 
saucer),  with  a  black  border  formed  by  the  remaining  gum 
with  the  lampblack  mixed.  If  chalk  had  been  used  instead 
of  lampblack  and  a  black  saucer  instead  of  a  white  one, 
under  the  same  conditions  a  black  image  surrounded  by 
white  would  result.  These  experimental  results  are  of 
importance  as  giving  the  key  to  many  modern  methods 
of  photographic  printing  and  other  processes. 

6.  If    a    piece    of   sensitized    Ferro-Prussiate    paper 


The  Meaning  of  Photography — Its  History.         29 

("blue-print"  paper)  is  exposed  to  daylight  for  a  short  time, 
and  then  developed  by  immersion  in  water,  the  sensitized 
side  will  turn  blue  all  over.  If  another  piece  is  similarly 
exposed  under  a  drawing  made  with  black  ink  on  tracing- 
cloth  (which  is  almost  transparent),  the  inked  side  next  the 
sensitized  paper  surface,  and  immersed  in  water,  only  those 
parts  of  the  surface  that  were  not  under  the  black  lines 
turn  blue;  the  parts  that  were  protected  by  the  black  ink 
are  unchanged  and  wash  away,  leaving  the  image  of  the 
lines  showing  white  on  a  blue  ground.  In  this  experiment 
the  tracing  cloth,  with  inked  lines,  was  used  as  a  "negative" 
for  producing  the  print  or  "positive." 

7.  "Negatives"  made  by  photography  involve  exactly 
similar  principles.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  photo- 
graphic negatives  are  usually  made  from  an  image  of  the 
object  which  is  greatly  reduced  in  size,  by  the  intervention 
of  a  lens  in  a  miniature  "camera  obscura."  Some  light- 
sensitive  material  is  spread  upon  a  support,  preferably 
transparent,  for  greater  facility  in  subsequent  "printing" 
operations,  and  the  light  is  allowed  to  act  under  suitable 
conditions.  The  results  of  this  action  are  "developed"  to 
a  certain  point,  the  development  arrested  and  the  unacted 
on  material  removed  or  rendered  inactive ;  this  latter  oper- 
ation constituting  the  "fixing"  of  the  negative.  From  the 
negative  thus  produced,  positive  images  or  prints  may  then 
be  reproduced  in  any  required  quantity,  by  the  same  or 
other  processes. 

8.  Negative  making  or  printing  involves  the  princi- 
ples of  photography;  whatever  special  applications  may  be 
made  of  these  principles. 


30  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

HISTORICAL. 

9.  The  story  of  photography  is  that  of  a  dream  come 
true — a  fancy  transmutted  into  fact. 

Whoever  was  the  first  to  wonder  why  the  image  of 
the  summer  clouds  in  a  woodland  pool,  or  his  own  face 
reflected  in  his  shield  of  burnished  copper,  might  not  be 
fixed  there — such  a  one  was,  in  spirit,  the  first  photographer. 
Around  some  such  fancy,  legends  grew;  of  magic  mirrors 
that  would  show  scenes  at  a  distance;  of  charmed  basins 
that  held,  in  the  water  that  filled  them,  grewsome  pictures. 

10.  Then  came  the  practical  people — still  under  the 
inspiration  of  the  dream,  working  it  out  toward  realization, 
in  separate  ways,  until  another,  assembling  the  scattered 
materials  combined  them  into  a  step,  leading  up  to  the  door 
which  at  last  was  reached  and  opened  on  the  wide  and 
ever  widening  field. 

11.  Combining  as  it  does  the  practical  application  of 
optics — the  science  of  the  nature,  properties  and  transmis- 
sion of  light — and  chemistry,  which  treats  of  the  changes 
in  material  bodies  arising  from  alterations  in  their  composi- 
tion, it  must  be  the  case  that  the  early  events  in  the 
chain  leading  up  to  final  achievement  have  occurred  at 
irregular  intervals,  and  often  without  their  influence  or 
possible  bearing  being  realized  or  even  suspected.  Many 
books  like  this  would  fail  to  cover  all  the  details  of  the  com- 
plete story ;  only  the  briefest  summary  of  the  salient  points 
of  interest  connected  with  the  origins  of  photographic  nega- 
tive and  positive  processes  will  be  admissible  here. 

12.  The  first  definite  stage  that  we  note  in  the  un- 
folding and  completion  of  present-day  photography  was 


The  Meaning  of  Photography — lis  History,  3 1 

the  invention  attributed  to  the  Neapolitan  philosopher, 
Giambattista  della  Porta,  of  the  "Camera  Obscura,"  This 
he  described  in  his  book  on  "Natural  Magic,"  published  in 
1569.  He  admitted  a  ray  of  light  through  a  small  aperture 
in  the  side  of  an  otherwise  darkened  room,  and  found  that 
the  image  of  objects  on  the  outside  was  thrown  on  the  side 
of  the  room  opposite  the  aperture,  but  reversed — top  for 
bottom  and  left  for  right.  He  also  found  that  a  double- 
convex  lens,  placed  in  the  aperture,  would  make  the  shapes 
and  colors  more  distinct.  This  apparatus  is  the  basis  of  all 
modern  photographic  cameras.  Instead  of  the  photographer 
being  within  the  camera,  as  Porta  was,  he  views  the  image 
through  a  sheet  of  ground-glass  forming  one  side  of  it — 
unless  he  chooses  to  dispense  with  the  actual  inspection  of 
the  image,  as  he  is  compelled  to  by  the  construction  of  the 
majority  of  hand  cameras.  With  these,  a  miniature  camera, 
a  focusing  scale  or  similar  device  is  employed  to  secure  the 
focusing  and  arrangement  of  the  view. 

13.  Fabricius,  in  1556,  found  that  silver  chloride,  which 
occurs  as  an  ore,  called  "Horn  Silver,"  in  certain  silver 
mines,  turned  dark  by  exposure  to  light.  He  prepared  the 
silver  chloride  artificially,  and  noted  that  this  compound, 
white  when  freshly  prepared,  likewise  turned  black  by  ex- 
posure. But  he  was  interested  in  other  matters  and  made 
no  use  of  this  discovery. 

14.  Not  until  1727  was  any  application  made  of  this 
property  of  darkening  in  the  light  which  belongs  to  silver 
salts  in  general.  In  that  year  Schulze,  a  German  chemist, 
mixed  powdered  chalk  with  silver-nitrate,  filled  a  clear  glass 
bottle  with  the  mixture,  and  placed  on  the  outside  of  the 
bottle  a  paper  label,  lettered  in  black  ink.     When,  after 


32  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

exposure  to  light,  the  label  was  removed,  it  was  found  that 
the  parts  underneath  the  ink  had  been  unacted  on  by  light, 
remaining  white,  while  the  translucent  paper  had  allowed 
the  light  to  pass,  and  blacken  the  other  parts.  Thus  the 
letters  appeared  in  white,  on  a  dark  ground ;  until  they  too, 
after  the  removal  of  the  label,  turned  dark,  like  the  back- 
ground. This  experiment  is  the  basis  of  most  printing  pro- 
cesses involving  the  use  of  a  negative. 

15.  Thomas  Wedgewood  and  Humphry  Davy,  in  Eng- 
land, worked  along  the  same  lines  three-quarters  of  a  cen- 
tury later,  the  results  of  their  experiments  having  been  pub- 
lished in  1802.  They  coated  white  paper  or  white  leather 
with  silver  nitrate,  and  printed  thereon,  using  various 
opaque  objects,  also  paintings  on  glass,  as  negatives.  They 
also  experimented  with  the  camera  obscura  and  with  the 
solar  microscope — an  adaptation  of  Porta's  idea.  They  were 
foiled,  however,  by  the  low  sensitiveness  of  the  silver  salt 
and  the  impossibility  of  "preventing  the  unshaded  parts  of 
the  delineations  from  being  colored  by  exposure  to  the  day." 
In  other  words  they  were  unable  to  make  their  prints  per- 
manent— to  "fix"  them. 

16.  In  experimenting  with  the  then  new  art  of  Litho- 
graphy, Joseph  Nicephore  Niepce  about  1813,  tried  the  sub- 
stitution of  metal  plates  for  lithographic  stone  and  the  use 
of  a  kind  of  asphalt  as  a  coating.  With  the  idea  of  saving 
labor  in  drawing,  he  put  the  asphaltum-coated  plate  in  the 
camera-obscura  and  made  a  long  exposure  to  a  sunlit  object. 
The  high-lights  acted  on  the  asphaltum,  making  it  insoluble; 
the  shadows  had  no  effect,  and  permitted  the  coating  to  be 
removed  by  a  solvent.  The  metal  plate,  treated  with  acid, 
was  etched  away  around  the  parts  that  had  been  protected 


the  Meaning  of  Photography — Its  History.         3i 

by  the  insoluble  portions  of  the  coating,  and  a  relief-plate 
was  produced,  which  could  be  printed  from.  Niepce's  pro- 
cess, besides  giving  the  suggestion  of  development  of  a 
"latent  image,"  is  exactly  the  same  in  principle  as  that  now 
employed  in  making  "half-tone"  engraving  plates,  such  as 
are  used  in  printing  the  studies  and  similar  illustrations  of 
this  book. 

17.  A  prominent  scene-painter  in  Paris,  L.  J.  M.  Da- 
guerre,  heard  of  Niepce's  experiments,  made  his  acquaint- 
ance, and  in  1829  formed  a  partnership  with  him  for  working 
out  the  idea  into  practical  form.  No  particular  progress 
had  beeen  made  when  Niepce  died,  in  1833,  and  Daguerre 
continued  experimenting  along  his  own  lines,  finally  achiev- 
ing success  in  1838.  He  announced  the  full  details  of  this, 
the  first  successful  photographic  process,  publicly,  on  Aug- 
ust 19,  1839,  and  was  pensioned  by  the  French  government 
for  so  doing.  Daguerre  used  a  polished  plate  of  silver  cop- 
per, on  which  a  film  or  iodide  of  silver  was  allowed  to  form, 
by  exposing  the  silver  surface  to  the  vapor  of  iodine.  This 
coated  plate  was  then  exposed  in  the  camera,  and  developed 
by  the  action  of  metallic  mercury  vapor.  Fixing  was  ac- 
complished in  a  solution  of  common  salt. 

18.  The  pictures  produced  by  this  process,  called,  in 
honor  of  the  inventor,  "Daguerreotype,"  have  never  been 
surpassed  in  delicacy  and  beauty.  They  are  not  really  posi- 
tives, but  negatives  of  exceeding  thinness,  "backed"  by  the 
mirror-like  surface  of  the  silver.  This  is  the  reason  why 
the  earliest  daguerreotype  pictures  are  reversed.  Thus,  in 
a  portrait,  if  the  right  hand  rested  on  a  table,  the  daguerreo- 
type would  show  it  as  the  left.  This  drawback  was  over- 
come by  interposing  a  mirror  or  a  reflecting  prism.    But  the 


34  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

greatest  inconvenience,  and  one  impossible  to  overcome,  was 
this,  that  only  one  plate  could  be  made  for  each  operation ; 
every  duplicate  required  a  separate  operation. 

19.  While  Daguerre  was  experimenting  in  France,  an- 
other investigator  was  at  work  in  England,  along  quite 
different  lines — those  of  Schulze  and  Wedgewood  and  Davy. 
William  Henry  Fox-Talbot  announced  his  process  in  Janu- 
ary, 1839,  subsequent  to  the  announcements  of  Daguerre's 
discovery,  though  previous  to  his  public  divulging  of  its 
details. 

20.  Talbot  in  his  original  process  used  paper  coated 
with  silver  nitrate  and  chloride  in  combination,  making 
prints  of  opaque  objects,  as  Wedgewood  and  Davy  had 
done,  but  fixing  them  with  a  solution  of  common  salt.  He 
also  discovered  that  this  paper,  exposed  in  the  camera  for  a 
much  shorter  time  than  was  needed  to  produce  a  visible 
image,  received  an  impression,  a  latent  image,  which  could 
be  developed  by  a  solution  of  nut-galls ;  and  that  this  image, 
which  was  reversed,  not  only  in  regard  to  position,  but 
also  to  lights  and  darks,  could  be  used  as  a  negative,  from 
which  to  produce,  by  contact,  positives,  to  any  required 
extent.  To  this  process  he  gave  the  name  "Calotype,"  and 
is  entitled  to  the  credit  of  originating,  in  principle,  the 
method  now  universal. 

21.  To  John  Herschell  is  due  the  use  of  the  compound 
usually  termed  "Hypo" — really  Sodium  Thiosulphate — as  a 
fixing  agent.  This  was  adopted  in  practice  and  its  introduc- 
tion marks  an  important  epoch.  Although  glass  plates  had 
been  used  incidentally  by  Wedgewood  and  others  in  pho- 
tographic experiments,  the  suggestion  of  their  use,  instead 
of  paper,  in  producing  negatives,  seems  to  have  been  Her- 


The  Meaning  of  Photography — Its  History.         35 

schell's  also.  The  very  important  "Blueprint"  or  Ferro- 
prussiate  process,  so  extensively  utilized  in  modern  indus- 
trial and  engineering  work  is  another  of  his  contributions 
to  photographic  progress, 

22.  The  discovery  of  gun-cotton,  in  1846,  by  Schonbein, 
was  destined  to  have  an  important  effect  on  photographic 
methods,  a  few  years  later.  Ordinary  cotton  fibre,  treated 
with  "Aqua  Regia,"  a  combination  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acids,  is  so  altered  in  composition  as  to  become  soluble.  It 
is  interesting  to  note,  in  passing,  that  gun-cotton  enters 
also  into  the  composition  of  celluloid,  the  basis  of  "films." 

23.  Niepce  de  St.  Victor,  a  nephew  of  the  original 
Niepce,  using  glass  plates  for  the  negative  support,  made 
them  practicable  by  employing  starch  and  albumen  as  a 
medium  which  adhered  closely  to  the  glass  surface,  while 
carrying  an  iodide  in  combination.  This  coating  was  sen- 
sitized by  application  of  silver  nitrate;  development  with 
gallic  acid  and  fixing  with  potassium  bromide  completed  the 
process. 

24.  Blanquart-Everard,  in  1848,  applied  the  albumen 
coating  to  paper  for  printing.  The  albumen  acts  as  a  "size" 
and  results  in  keeping  the  chemicals  and  consequently  the 
image,  on  the  surface  of  the  paper,  instead  of  sinking  into 
its  substance.  The  usefulness  of  "Albumenized  paper"  for 
print  making  secured  the  wide  adoption  of  this  process,  the 
earliest  of  the  "glossy"  as  distinguished  from  the  "matt" 
class  of  printing  papers.  In  1850  Gustav  Le  Gray,  although 
not  the  originator  of  collodion,  used  it  to  replace  albumen 
as  a  coating  and  medium.  Collodion,  the  solution  of  g^n- 
cotton  in  mixed  ethyl-ether  and  alcohol,  leaves  a  fine  trans- 


36  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

parent  coating  of  film  on  a  glass  plate  on  which  it  has  been 
poured,  the  ether-alcohol  solvent  quickly  evaporating. 

25.  These  experimental  suggestions  and  partial  suc- 
cesses were  combined,  in  1851,  by  Frederick  Scott  Archer, 
into  practical  working  shape,  as  the  "Wet  Collodion"  pro- 
cess. So  effective  and  satisfactory  was  it  that  it  was  every- 
where adopted,  supplanting  Calotype,  Daguerreotype  and 
all  other  "types"  for  practical  purposes  and  keeping  the  field 
almost  entirely  to  itself  until  about  1880.  Its  drawback 
was  the  condition  that  the  plates  must  be  sensitized  by  im- 
mersion in  a  nitrate  of  silver  bath  and  used  almost  immedi- 
ately. Whenever  exposures  were  to  be  made  at  any  distance 
from  studio  or  work-room,  this  imposed  the  necessity  of 
transporting  a  cumbrous  outfit  for  sensitizing  and  develop- 
ment in  a  portable  dark-room  of  some  sort.  The  results, 
under  proper  conditions,  have,  however,  never  been  sur- 
passed by  any  other  process  in  the  prompt  and  sure  produc- 
tion of  negatives  having  perfect  transparency  in  the  darks 
and  opacity  in  the  high-lights,  together  with  satisfactory 
gradation  in  the  intervening  "half-tones."  The  "contrasty" 
properties  of  such  negatives  render  them  still  the  mainstay 
of  the  photo-engraver  today. 

26.  In  1855  Taupenot  suggested  the  "dry-plate  bath" 
process.  He  employed  "preservatives" — gallic  acid,  honey 
and  albumen — to  prevent  the  crystallization  of  the  silver 
nitrate  which  occurs  when  a  sensitized  wet-collodion  plate 
is  allowed  to  dry.  This  crystallization  renders  the  action 
of  exposure  and  development  uneven,  spoiling  the  result. 
Other  experimenters,  at  about  the  same  time,  employed 
tannin,  sugar,  beer,  gum,  resin,  tea,  coffee  and  tobacco  and 
many  other  substances,  as  preservatives;    but  none  of  the 


The  Meaning  of  Photography — Its  History.  37 

methods  became  widely  popular,  although  special  workers 
produced  notably  successful  results  in  numerous  instances. 

27.  In  1864,  Sayce  and  Bolton  published  the  details 
of  a  collodion-emulsion.  The  principle  of  this  process  was 
the  use  of  the  sensitizing  agent,  the  nitrate  or  other  salt  of 
silver,  in  practically  the  precise  quantity  required  for  the 
chemical  combination  that  occurred,  through  the  action  of 
light,  on  exposure.  Up  to  this  time  it  had  been  the  practice 
to  have  the  silver  nitrate  in  excess.  The  collodion  emulsion 
could  be  prepared  in  bulk  and  used  at  convenience  for 
coating  glass  plates,  which  were  dried  and  could  then  be 
used  as  required.  Many  workers  contributed  to  the  per- 
fecting of  the  details  of  this  process,  but  all  their  results 
were  superseded  by  the  next  advance,  the  Gelatin-Bromide 
process. 

28.  In  1871,  Dr.  Maddox  suggested  and  worked  out 
the  idea  of  substituting  a  solution  of  gelatin  in  water  for 
the  solution  of  collodion  in  spirits,  combining  it  with  bro- 
mide of  silver.  This  suggestion  was  eagerly  taken  up  by 
the  experimenters  and  within  the  next  decade  the  commer- 
cial production  of  gelatin  dry-plates  on  a  large  scale  had 
become  a  reality,  and  the  actual  popularization  of  pho- 
tography, rendering  it  available  to  all,  had  begun. 

29.  From  1880  to  the  present  time,  modifications  and 
improvements,  optical,  mechanical  and  chemical,  have  fol- 
lowed in  such  bewildering  profusion  that  it  is  impossible 
to  summarize  them,  even  briefly.  They  have  resulted,  on 
the  negative-making  side,  in  wonderfully  increased  sensi- 
tiveness, reducing  the  necessary  time  for  exposures  so  that 
thousandths  of  a  second  have  become  among  the  common- 
place.   Where  time  is  not  the  chief  object,  then  other  results, 


38  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

such  as  color  sensitiveness,  are  attained.  Most  recent  are 
the  wondrous  results  obtained  by  the  Lumiere  color  pro- 
cess, attained  along  new  lines  of  application,  and  promising 
far  greater  advances  for  the  future. 

30.  Mechanically,  the  invention  of  an  American,  Dr. 
Goodwin,  which  substituted  for  fragile,  heavy,  rigid  glass 
a  support  of  celluloid,  a  substance  at  once  flexible,  light  and 
tough  and  practically  of  equal  transparency,  has  really  rev- 
olutionized photography  on  its  practical  side  and  rendered 
it  popular  to  an  extent  difficult  to  realize. 

31.  The  practical  introduction  of  this  improvement 
and  the  countless  accessory  apparatus,  cameras  and  the  like, 
is  to  be  credited  to  another  American,  George  Eastman, 
who  has  made  "Kodak"  a  household  word  throughout  the 
world.  Indeed,  to  many  thousands  of  people  it  involves 
and  comprehends  the  entire  meaning  of  "Photography." 
The  nature  of  the  material  permits  of  its  manufacture  in 
rolls  of  any  desired  length,  available  for  one,  a  half-dozen, 
or  a  thousand  exposures.  By  the  ingenious  application  of 
well  known  principles,  these  rolls  in  the  shape  of  "cart- 
ridges" may  be  put  into  and  removed  from  suitable  cameras 
in  full  daylight,  without  injury  to  the  result. 

32.  A  still  more  striking  instance  of  the  adaptability 
of  such  rolls  is  their  use,  in  quantities  measurable  only  by 
thousands  of  miles,  for  making  the  negatives  and  positives 
employed  in  one  of  the  latest  applications  of  photography, 
the  Cinematographs  or  "moving  pictures."  This  use  bids 
fair  to  overshadow,  by  comparison,  the  quantities,  already 
so  large,  of  material  required  in  other  photographic  fields. 
And  now  that  cinematographic  pictures,  closely  approxi- 
mating "natural  colors,"  have  been  announced  as  an  accom- 


The  Meaning  of  Photography — Its  History.         39 

plished  fact,  the  mind  can  scarcely  comprehend  what  fur- 
ther increase  this  will  involve. 

33.  It  cannot  be  amiss  to  call  the  attention  of  those 
who  may  read  the  foregoing  brief  survey  of  the  origins  and 
progress  of  photography  to  the  importance  of  an  acquaint- 
ance with  its  historical  side.  Not  a  week  passes  that  does 
not  see  some  new  use  or  application  made  of  methods 
that  are,  by  comparison,  old;  and  to  those  who  are  am- 
bitious of  advancing,  as  students  and  practitioners,  nothing 
can  be  more  useful  than  an  acquaintance  with  what  has 
been  done  by  their  predecessors  in  the  field,  to  whose 
devoted  labors  the  present  day  owes  its  debt  for  the 
knowledge  it  has  received  from  them. 


CHAPTER  II. 
The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It. 

34.  While  the  above  title  might  indicate  that  this  vol- 
ume is  intended  only  for  the  beginner,  yet  we  would  advise 
those  who  have  had  some  experience,  but  have  possibly 
begun  wrong,  to  carefully  read  these  instructions.  The 
house  that  is  built  on  a  poor  foundation  will  never  with- 
stand the  force  of  the  elements,  and  so  it  is  in  photography. 
Start  right.  Be  sure  of  your  foundation.  Then  the  diffi- 
culties which  you  will  assuredly  meet  as  you  advance  in  this 
most  interesting  and  profitable  profession  will  be  readily 
overcome. 

35.  In  this  instruction  we  will  avoid,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, technicalities  and  theories.  Be  honest  with  yourself 
in  this  study  of  photography,  and  your  own  energies,  taste 
and  ambition  will  lead  you  to  success. 

36.  The  camera  has  now  become  almost  a  household 
necessity.  Nearly  every  home  has  one  or  more,  yet  only 
about  one-third  are  actually  in  use.  Hardly  one-half  of  the 
users  do  their  own  finishing  but  depend  upon  the  profes- 
sional or  wide-awake  amateur  to  do  finishing  for  them. 
The  reason  for  this  is  plain.  When  the  camera  was  first 
purchased  they  were  led  to  believe  that  all  that  was  neces- 
sary was  to  point  the  instrument  at  the  object  they  wished 
to  photograph,  press  the  bulb  or  push  button  and  "presto 


42  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

change"  the  picture  was  finished.  In  nearly  every  instance, 
they  have  met  with  failures.  Most  of  those  meeting  with 
success  do  not  readily  understand  how  they  attained  their 
success,  and  when  they  meet  with  failure  blame  the  photo- 
grapher who  developed  their  plates  or  films,  or  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  their  camera  is  a  poor  one.  If  they  have 
not  lost  their  enthusiasm  and  are  well  supplied  with  worldly 
goods,  they  buy  a  more  expensive  instrument ;  perhaps  keep 
on  producing  indifferent  results  until  they  finally  become 
disgusted,  place  the  camera  on  the  shelf,  and  lose  thereby 
a  most  interesting  source  of  education,  pleasure  and  profit. 

37.  This  is  the  reason  why,  in  so  many  homes  there  is 
more  than  one  camera.  It  also  partly  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  the  out-put  of  the  different  manufacturers  is  growing 
larger  every  year  and  the  number  of  new  cameras  is  steadily 
increasing. 

38.  While  it  is  advisable  for  beginners  to  have  as 
good  an  outfit  as  possible,  it  is  better,  however,  for  them 
to  have  a  cheap  one  and  to  know  how  to  use  it  intelligently. 
Many  a  cheap  instrument  is  condemned  because  the  user 
is  ignorant  of  its  limitations  and  tries  to  put  it  to  uses  for 
which  it  was  never  intended.  The  gun  that  is  guaranteed  to 
shoot  true  at  one  hundred  yards  is  not  expected  to  do  so 
at  three  hundred.    The  same  applies  to  a  camera, 

39.  In  this  instruction  you  will  be  taught  what  to  ex- 
pect from  your  camera.  You  will  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  its  every  feature  and  attachment,  to  learn 
how  to  produce  the  best  possible  results.  The  rudiments  of 
proper  lighting,  exposure  and  developing  of  plates  or  films, 
with  prepared  powders  principally,  will  be  thoroughly 
treated. 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  43 

40.  The  knowledge  and  experience  thus  gained  will  be 
the  foundation  of  your  future  photographic  studies.  You 
will  meet  with  failures  and  successes.  They  should  teach 
you  to  study  the  reasons  for  both.  Learn  to  think  photo- 
graphically for  yourself.  Do  not  go  ahead  blindly,  but 
when  in  doubt,  stop  and  think.  Reason  out  for  yourself 
the  why  and  wherefore  of  things  and  you  are  bound  to  suc- 
ceed, overcoming,  with  ease,  difficulties  that  otherwise 
seem  to  be  unsurmountable.  The  frequent  difficulties 
that  you  will  experience  in  your  first  efforts  will  be  fully 
explained  at  the  end  of  each  chapter,  under  the  heading, 
"Difficulties,"  and  remedies  for  the  same  will  be  suggested. 
Above  everything  else  study  all  instruction  carefully,  and 
intelligently  follow  it.  As  each  failure  occurs,  turn  to  the 
"Difficulty"  chapter,  where  you  will  find  your  trouble  clear- 
ly explained  and  the  proper  remedy  given. 

41.  While  cameras  sent  out  by  most  manufacturers 
are  furnished  with  a  descriptive  booklet,  giving  general 
instructions,  there  may  be  some  points  not  perfectly  clear 
to  the  beginner.  Since  the  different  types  of  cameras  are  so 
numerous  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  cover  them  all  in 
detail,  we  will  only  describe  here  the  more  important  parts 
of  the  modern  instrument. 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  CAMERAS. 

42.  Box  Cameras.  The  Box  Camera  is  the  cheapest 
and  simplest  of  all  types  of  cameras.  Some  are  made  for 
use  with  films,  others  for  plates,  but  they  are  seldom  ob- 
tainable in  sizes  larger  than  4x5.  Box  cameras  are  fitted 
with  single  lenses,  and  the  shutters  supplied  usually  allow 


44  The  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

of  both  instantaneous  and  time  exposures,  although  there 
are  more  elaborate  types  of  box  cameras  provided  with  more 
perfect  shutters,  giving  greater  range  of  exposure.  All  box 
cameras  are  arranged  to  take  pictures  both  vertically  and 
horizontally,  being  fitted  with  finders  on  both  the  vertical 
and  horizontal  sides.  The  majority  of  such  cameras  have 
an  arrangement  for  changing  the  size  of  diaphragm  or  lens 
opening.  To  effect  the  movement  of  the  shutter  most  of 
these  cameras  are  provided  with  a  lever  or  button,  which, 
for  a  time  exposure,  in  the  first  case  must  be  pushed  over 
in  one  direction  to  open  the  shutter,  and  back  to  the  original 
position  to  close  the  shutter ;  or,  in  the  latter  case,  where 
a  button  is  provided,  it  requires  one  pressure  to  open  the 
shutter  and  another  pressure  to  close  the  shutter.  When 
set  for  instantaneous  exposure  one  movement  of  the  lever, 
or  one  pressure  of  the  button,  will  cause  the  shutter  to  open 
and  close.  Any  length  of  time  can,  of  course,  be  given  for 
a  time  exposure,  while  the  instantaneous  exposure  will  gen- 
erally average  about  1-33  of  a  second.  Box  cameras  are 
not  provided  with  rising  front  or  swing-back  attachments. 
(See  Illustration  No.  1  of  Box  Cameras.) 

43.  Magazine  Cameras.  The  Magazine  Camera  is  a 
form  of  box  camera,  but  is  loaded  with  a  given  number  of 
plates  that  can  be  dropped  into  position,  one  at  a  time, 
ready  for  exposure,  by  the  mere  pressing  of  a  button  or  the 
pushing  over  of  a  lever. 

44.  Folding  Cameras.  A  folding  camera  is,  in  effect, 
a  box  camera,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the  lens  support 
is  attached  to  a  collapsible  bellows.  This  bellows,  folding 
into  small  compass,  enables  the  camera  to  be  made  more 
compact.    The  front  of  the  camera,  on  being  released  by  a 


A  Modem  Camera — Bellows  Extended 


A  Modern  Camera.     Bed  dropped  and  wide  angle  attachment  in  use 


Panoramic  Camera 


Illustration  No.  i — Box  Camera 
See  Paragraph  No.  42 


Illustration  No.  3— Pocket  Film  Camera 
Hee  Paragraph  No.  45 


Illustration  No.  2— Folding  Camera 
See  Paragraph  No.  44 


Illustration  No.  4— Inserting  Film  Pack 
See  Paragraph  No.  46 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  47 

button,  drops  on  its  hinges  and  is  held  rigidly  in  position 
at  right-angles  to  the  body  of  the  camera,  disclosing  a 
track  attached  thereto,  on  which  the  lens  support  can  be 
moved  in  or  out,  extending  or  collapsing  the  bellows  accord- 
ing to  requirements.  The  better  types  of  folding  cameras 
are  fitted  with  a  rack  and  pinion  on  the  front  of  the  camera, 
which  enables  a  very  careful  adjustment  of  the  lens  support. 
A  finder  is  usually  placed  on  the  front  board,  or  attached 
to  the  lens  support.  The  lens  board  in  the  support  is  also 
frequently  made  to  raise  or  lower,  for  reasons  which  are 
shown  in  future  paragraphs.  There  are,  of  course,  many 
othef  attachments  and  adjustments  on  folding  cameras,  the 
more  expensive  types  affording  greater  possibility  of  move- 
ment.   (See  Illustration  No.  2.) 

45.  Film  Cameras.  Film  cameras  are  practically  the 
same  as  plate  cameras,  but  are  arranged  with  a  particular 
reference  to  the  use  of  daylight  loading  roll  films  instead 
of  glass  plates.  They  are  made  in  both  box  and  folding 
types,  with  all  the  various  adjustments  and  movements 
already  given  in  previous  paragraphs.  As  each  manufac- 
turer provides  a  descriptive  booklet  with  each  camera  he 
puts  out,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  describe  more  closely  the 
various  workings  of  the  different  cameras.  The  film  camera 
is  more  generally  known  as  a  kodak,  in  distinction  to  the 
plate  camera.  The  operation  of  the  kodak,  aside  from  the 
manipulation  of  the  film,  is  practically  the  same  as  the  plate 
camera,  and  the  rules  regarding  focusing  and  the  securing 
of  the  proper  register  of  the  image  are  exactly  alike.  Illus- 
tration No.  3  shows  a  pocket  film  kodak. 

46.  Film-Plate  Cameras.  The  Film-Plate  combination 
camera  is  one  in  which  either  plates  or  cut  films  may  be 


48  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

used.  The  cut  film  is  put  up  in  the  shape  of  a  pack  and 
arranged  so  that  the  pack  may  be  slipped  into  what  is  known 
as  a  film  pack  adapter,  a  substitute  for  a  plate  holder,  being 
the  same  shape  and  size.  A  pack  of  films  may  be  slipped 
into,  or  removed  from,  the  adapter  in  daylight.  Adapters 
are  inserted  in  the  camera  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as 
the  plate  holder.  Film-plate  cameras  are  provided  with 
adjustments  and  attachments  similar  to  plate  or  film  cam- 
eras, and  are  operated  in  the  manner  previously  described. 
(See  Illustrate  No.  4  of  Film-Plate  Camera.) 

47.  View  Cameras.  The  view  camera  is  an  instru- 
ment not  unsimilar  to  the  Folding  Camera  previously  de- 
scribed, but  is  not  made  in  the  enclosed  box  form  of  the 
latter,  and  its  particular  purpose  is  to  be  used  on  some  form 
of  a  support  or  tripod,  as  against  the  folding  camera,  which 
is  more  essentially  a  "hand  camera."  In  its  attachments 
and  method  of  setting  up  for  use  it  is  almost  identical  with 
the  folding  hand  camera,  although,  generally  speaking,  the 
view  camera  may  be  considered  to  have  a  greater  range  of 

■  use.  View  cameras  are  made  in  all  sizes  from  4x5  up  to 
11x14,  and  larger,  whilst  folding  hand  cameras  are  rarely 
made  in  sizes  over  63^x8^. 

48.  Reflex  Type  of  Cameras.  Another  form  of  camera 
more  recently  introduced,  yet  finding  great  favor  with  ama- 
teur photographers,  is  the  Reflex  type  of  camera.  This  is  a 
box  form  of  camera,  which  is  provided  with  a  mirror  ar- 
rangement in  its  interior,  enabling  the  worker  to  see  his 
picture  the  full  size  of  the  plate,  the  right  way  up  (all 
ground-glass  images  obtained  in  folding  and  other  types 
of  cameras  show  the  image  upside  down),  and  visible  to  the 
moment  of  exposure.     Such  cameras  are  provided  with  a 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  49 

special  type  of  shutter,  called  the  Focal  Plane  Shutter, 
which  works  at  very  high  speeds.  The  Reflex  camera,  of 
which  the  Graflex  and  its  various  prototypes  are  its  best 
examples,  is  especially  adapted  for  the  photographing  of 
moving  objects,  children  and  scenes  of  everyday  life. 

49.  ■  Lenses.  The  camera,  whatever  its  type,  is  not 
complete  without  a  lens.  The  similar  types  of  cameras  are 
provided  with  the  simpler  forms  of  lenses,  the  simplest  of 
all  being  the  single,  or  Meniscus  lens,  which  is  generally 
fitted  to  box  cameras  and  the  cheapest  folding  cameras  of 
the  fixed  focus  type.  The  single,  achromatic,  or  view  lens, 
as  it  is  sometimes  styled,  is  limited  in  its  scope.  For  in- 
stance, it  is  not  capable  of  accurately  reproducing  lines 
such  as  the  corners  of  buildings.  It  is  not  a  fast  lens,  and 
its  angle  of  vision  is  a  narrow  one. 

50.  Of  greater  general  use  is  the  Rapid  Rectilinear  lens 
which  being  made  up  of  two  or  more  lenses  attached  to  each 
end  of  the  lens  barrel  belongs  to  the  doublet  type  of  lenses.  Most 
hand  and  film  cameras  are  supplied  with  such  lenses,  which 
are  capable  of  accurately  rendering  straight  lines  and  give  a 
more  or  less  even  definition  over  the  plate  for  which  they 
are  adapted.  The  single  set  of  lenses  of  a  doublet  can  be 
used  by*  itself  as  a  view  lens,  and  then  gives  an  image  of 
twice  the  dimensions  of  the  doublet  lens. 

51.  For  a  still  further  type  of  lens,  which  has  all  the 
advantages  of  the  rectilinear  just  mentioned,  and  adds  to 
these  the  further  advantages  of  great  speed,  great  brilliancy 
and  fine  definition,  is  the  modern  or  anastigmat  doublet. 
Such  lenses  are  of  various  types,  and  when  fitted  to  hand, 
view  or  reflex  cameras  enable  the  worker  to  do  the  very 
highest  type  of  work.    For  certain  forms  of  work,  such  as 


50  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

the  photographing  of  buildings  and  interior  views,  where 
the  worker  is  not  able  to  recede  far  enough  from  the  object 
to  be  photographed,  a  fourth  type  of  lens  is  necessary.  Such 
a  lens  is  called  the  ivide-angle  lens,  which  is  so  constructed 
as  to  enable  the  worker  to  get  near  to  his  object  and  still  get 
it  all  'within  the  dimensions  of  his  plate. 

52.  Shutters.  To  enable  a  picture  to  be  made,  some 
sort  of  a  contrivance  is  necessary,  by  which  the  light  can 
be  admitted  through  the  lens  for  a  stated  period  of  time. 
Such  contrivances  are  called,  in  general,  shutters,  and  are 
of  varying  types — ^being  placed  in  front  of  the  lens,  or  be- 
tween the  lens,  or  behind  the  lens  and  in  front  of  the  plate, 
according  to  their  type  and  the  results  they  are  called  upon 
to  produce.  In  box  type  cameras  and  the  cheaper  folding 
cameras  which  are  fitted  with  single  lenses  only,  a  shutter 
that  works  in  front  of  the  lens  is  used,  either  the  simple 
rotary  shutter,  such  as  we  find  on  the  box  type  of  kodaks  and 
cheap  plate  box  cameras,  or  the  single  valve  shutters,  such  as 
are  usually  fitted  to  cheaper  folding  cameras — film  or  plate. 
Doublet  lenses  have  the  shutter  fitted  into  the  barrel  mid- 
way between  the  two  lens  cells.  These  shutters,  being 
either  of  the  single  valve,  double  valve,  or  automatic  type, 
work  either  by  pressure  on  a  small  external  lever  or  by  the 
pneumatic  pressure  of  a  rubber  bulb  or  tube  attached  to 
an  air  valve  on  the  shutter.  The  remaining  type  of  shutter 
is  that  which  is  commonly  fitted  to  reflex  cameras,  and  con- 
sists of  an  opaque  curtain  which  passes  rapidly  in  front  of, 
and  very  close  to,  the  sensitive  plate,  admitting  the  light 
through  an  adjustable  longitudinal  slot  in  the  curtain.  In- 
finitesimal exposures  can  be  obtained  with  this  shutter, 
known  as  the  focal  plane  shutter,  the  theory  and  operation 
of  which  are  fully  explained  in  Volume  VI. 


The  Camera — How  to  Uie  It.  51 

53.  Operating  the  Shutter. — The  Rotary  Shutter 
shown  in  Illustration  No.  5  is  automatic  in  action  and  al- 
ways set.  It  is  operated  by  pressure  on  a  lever,  which  pro- 
trudes from  the  side  of  the  box.  To  obtain  an  instantaneous 
exposure  one  pressure  of  the  lever  will  open  and  close  the 
shutter  simultaneously.  By  pulling  out  a  small  bar  or  lever 
projecting  from  the  side  of  the  camera  the  shutter  can  be 
used  for  time  exposure.  To  obtain  a  time  exposure  two 
pressures  of  the  lever  are  required — one  to  open  the  shut- 
ter, admitting  the  light  through  the  lens,  and  another  to 
close  the  shutter,  cutting  oflf  the  light.  The  diaphragm 
openings  are  conrolled  by  a  lever  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
time  exposure. 

54.  The  Single  Valve  Shutters  (See  Illustration  No.  6) 
are  provided  with  a  dial  and  a  pointer,  the  dial  being 
marked  T,  B,  I.  When  the  pointer  is  turned  to  the  letter  T 
the  shutter  is  then  set  for  what  is  termed  a  bulb  exposure; 
the  lever  or  one  squeeze  of  the  pneumatic  bulb  will  open  the 
shutter,  and  a  similar  movement  on  the  lever  or  bulb  will 
close  the  shutter.  If  the  pointer  be  turned  to  the  letter  B, 
the  shutter  is  then  set  for  what  is  termed  a  bulb  exposure; 
that  is,  the  shutter  will  remain  open  just  so  long  as  the  lever 
is  held  down,  or  a  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  bulb.  Releas- 
ing either  will  instantly  close  the  shutter.  The  use  of  the 
bulb  exposure  is  more  particularly  for  photographing  objects 
which  are  liable  to  move,  and  with  which  more  than  an 
instantaneous  exposure  is  permissible.  The  I  on  the  dial 
signifies  instantaneous,  and  when  the  pointer  is  adjusted  to 
this  letter  the  shutter  will  work  instantaneously  when  the 
lever  or  bulb  operates  it.  The  duration  of  the  instantaneous 
exposure  with  these  shutters  is  about  equivalent  to  1-33  of 
a  second. 


52  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

55.  The  Double  Valve  Shutters  are  similar  in  their 
work  to  the  single  valve  shutter,  but  are  more  accurately 
adjusted  and  supplied  with  a  greater  range  of  movement. 
Usually  the  dial  is  provided  with  T  and  B  markings,  and  from 
I  second  to  i-ioo  of  a  second.  To  obtain  the  various  exposures 
the  pointer  is  set  to  the  letter  or  fraction  of  a  second  required. 
In  Illustration  No.  7  is  shown  a  standard  type  of  double 
valve  shutter.  This  shutter  is  fitted  with  two  levers,  lever 
C  on  the  right  used  for  setting  the  shutter,  while  the  lever  D 
on  the  left  is  used  to  release  it  to  make  the  exposure.  The 
shutter  is  fitted  for  a  bulb  and  tube  with  which  the  expos- 
ure can  be  made  instead  of  with  the  finger  release.  The 
tubing  should  be  attached  to  the  valve  on  the  left  side.  On 
the  top  of  the  shutter  there  is  a  small  dial,  containing  the 
letters  B  and  T;  the  dial  is  also  marked  in  figures  from  1  to 
Yioo,  representing  seconds  and  fractions  of  a  second.  When 
the  dial,  A,  is  turned  so  that  the  indicator,  E,  is  placed  at  T 
it  means  time  exposure.  To  set  the  shutter  pull  down  lever, 
C.  After  setting  the  shutter,  one  pressure  of  the  bulb 
or  pressing  down  on  the  lever  or  finger  release,  D,  opens  the 
shutter  and  it  remains  open  until  the  bulb  or  finger  release 
is  again  pressed,  when  the  shutter  is  closed.  Timing  ex- 
posures. When  the  dial  is  placed  at  B  the  shutter  will 
remain  open  as  long  as  the  hand  presses  the  bulb  or  the 
finger  holds  down  the  finger  release.  It  is  advisable  to  use 
B,  or  the  bulb,  for  all  exposures  ranging  from  one-half  to 
two  seconds,  as  it  is  more  simple  to  operate.    For  all  expos- 

• 

ures  requiring  longer  time,  the  T  or  time  exposure  should 
be  used.  By  pressing  the  bulb  once,  the  shutter  is  opened 
and  remains  open  until  you  again  press  the  bulb  when  it 
closes,  thus  allowing  for  any  lengfth  of  exposure.  When 
instantaneous  or  quick  exposures  are  required,  then  the  dial 


Illustration  No.  5. 

Rotary  Shutter. 

See  Paragraph  No.  53. 


Illustration  No.  6. 

Single  Valve  Shutter. 

See  Paragraph   No.  54. 


Illustration  No.  7. 
Double  Valve   Shutter. 
See  Paragraph   No.  55. 


Illustration  No.  8. 

Automatic  Shutter. 

See  Paragraph  No.  56. 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  55 

should  be  set  at  1-100,  1-50,  or  1-25,  which  indicate  fractions 
of  a  second.  The  proper  one  to  use  depends  on  the  strength 
of  light.  In  real  bright  light  1-100  is  best,  and  in  medium 
light  1-50  or  1-25.  When  set  at  1-100,  which  is  the  quickest 
exposure  that  can  be  made  with  such  a  shutter,  one  pressure 
of  the  bulb  or  pressing  down  of  the  finger  release  will  make 
an  exposure  1-100  part  of  a  second.  When  the  dial  is  placed 
at  1-50,  1-25,  1-5,  or  1-2,  one  pressure  of  the  bulb  or  pressing 
down  the  finger  release  will  give  the  indicated  fraction  of  a 
second  exposure.  To  focus  the  camera  turn  the  dial  at  T, 
set  your  shutter  by  pressing  down  the  finger  release,  C, 
opposite  the  side  from  which  your  tube  is  attached;  then, 
one  pressure  of  the  bulb  will  open  the  shutter  and  permit 
you  to  see  the  image  on  the  focusing  screen  (ground-glass), 

56.  Automatic  Shutters  are  made  of  the  single  valve 
and  double  valve  type,  and  also  without  any  visible  valve, 
and  are  termed  automatic  for  the  reason  that  they  are  always 
ready  for  exposure  without  having  to  be  "set,"  as  the  older 
forms  of  single  and  double  valve  shutters  have  to  be.  The 
automatic  shutter  can  be  seen  to  have  its  advantages  over 
the  older  forms,  but  at  the  same  time  greater  care  is  neces- 
sary in  seeing  that  the  shutter  is  not  opened  inadvertently 
through  a  pressure  of  the  bulb,  which  could  not  take  place 
with  the  older  shutter  before  it  was  set.  In  Illustration  No. 
8  is  shown  a  common  form  of  double  valve  automatic  shut- 
ter which  automatically  sets  itself  after  each  exposure.  The 
setting  of  the  speed  in  this  class  of  shutter  is  practically  the 
same  as  for  the  one  shown  in  Illustration  No.  7.  An  indis- 
pensible  part  of  all  between-the-lens  shutters  is  the  dia- 
phragm or  stop,  which  regulates  the  quantity  of  light  pass- 
ing through  the  shutter  to  the  plate  or  film. 


56  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

57.  Diaphragms  or  Stops.  The  diaphragm  or  stop  in 
a  shutter  is  usually  an  opening  which  can  be  regulated  from 
outside  the  lens  barrel,  making  it  larger  or  smaller  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  light  it  is  desired  to  admit  to  the 
plate,  and  also  in  proportion  to  the  sharpness  of  definition 
that  is  required  on  the  plate. 

58.  Waterhouse  Stops — Iris  Diaphragm.  Originally 
diaphragms  were  metal  plates,  each  having  an  opening  in 
the  center,  of  different  diameters,  ranging  in  geometrical 
proportion  to  the  focal  length  of  the  lenses  to  which  they 
belong.  They  are  known  as  Waterhouse  stops,  and  are 
inserted  in  an  opening  in  the  lens  barrel.  The  majority 
of  lenses  and  shutters  fitted  to  the  common  hand  cameras 
now  contain  a  device  known  as  the  Iris  Diaphragm,  whereby 
the  opening  may  be  decreased  or  increased  in  size  by  the 
sinble  movement  of  the  indicator,  B.  See  Illustrations  Nos.  7 
and  8.  When  this  lever  is  turned  to  any  of  the  figures  on 
the  plate  at  the  bottom  of  the  shutter  it  indicates  the  pro- 
portionate amount  of  light  admitted.  The  smaller  the  aper- 
ture the  greater  will  be  the  depth  of  focus  of  the  lens. 

59.  Depth  of  Focus.  By  depth  of  focus  is  meant  the 
power  which  a  lens  has  of  rendering  a  sharp  image  upon 
the  ground-glass,  of  objects  situated  at  varying  distances. 
When  using  the  lens  at  full  opening,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain 
at  one  and  the  same  time  a  clear  and  sharp  image  on  the 
ground-glass  of  both  near  and  distant  objects.  To  obtain 
this  increased  sharpness  you  must  make  use  of  the  stops  or 
diaphragms.    This  gives  increased  depth  of  focus. 

60.  Use  of  Diaphragms.  The  diaphragm  markings  are 
usually  arranged  at  the  lower  part  of  the  front  of  the  shutter. 
(See  Illustrations  Nos.  6,  7  and  8.)     By  using  the  smaller 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  59 

opening,  diaphragming  down,  or  "stopping  down,"  as  it  is 
commonly  termed,  a  portion  of  the  rays  are  cut  oflf  and  a 
much  greater  depth  of  focus  secured;  but  in  employing  a 
smaller  opening,  cutting  out  the  rays  of  light,  the  exposure 
necessary  is  greatly  increased. 

61.  There  are  many  defects  in  some  of  the  cheaper 
grades  of  lenses,  and,  aside  from  giving  a  greater  depth  of 
focus,  the  use  of  a  smaller  stop  corrects  different  aberrations 
or  defects.  The  more  important  points  to  be  remembered  in 
using  a  diaphragm  are  these : 

First,  the  larger  the  aperture  the  more  roundness,  at- 
mosphere or  effect  of  distance  is  obtained,  the  picture  pre- 
senting a  bolder  appearance;  but  a  more  rapid  exposure  is 
required. 

Second,  the  smaller  the  aperture  the  longer  the  exposure, 
the  greater  the  depth  of  focus  and  the  sharper  the  image, 
accompanied  by  a  corresponding  loss  in  relief.  When  focus- 
ing always  have  your  lens  wide  open  (full  diaphragm). 
After  obtaining  the  focus,  stop  down  only  enough  to  give 
clear  detail  in  the  picture. 

62.  To  Focus  the  Camera.  Whatever  the  type  of 
shutter  used,  set  it  at  the  time  exposure  and  open,  using 
the  largest  stop  or  diaphragm.  The  light  will  then  pass 
through  the  lens,  permitting  you  to  see  the  image  on  the 
focusing  screen  or  ground-glass.  By  moving  the  lens  sup- 
port— i.  e.,  on  folding  cameras — to  and  fro  on  the  track,  the 
image  on  the  ground-glass  can  be  brought  to  a  focus,  which 
means  clear,  sharp  definition.  With  kodaks  which  are  not 
provided  with  a  ground-glass  or  focusing  screen  the  focus 
is  obtained  by  gauging  the  distance  from  the  camera  to 
the  object  being  photographed,  and  setting  the  pointer  on 


60  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

the  lens  support  opposite  that  distance  indicated  on  the 
focusing  scale. 

63.  Regulating  Different  Openings  According  to  Ex- 
posure. For  snap-shot  or  instantaneous  exposures  employ 
the  largest  diaphragm  or  opening.  In  average  view  work — 
that  is,  open  landscapes — it  is  seldom  necessary  to  stop 
down,  i.  e.,  reduce  the  aperture,  smaller  than  the  f/8,  or 
its  equivalent  U.  S.  4.  (See  following  paragraph.)  The  small- 
est opening  should  be  used  only  when  extreme  sharpness 
of  the  whole  field  is  required.  For  example,  when  photo- 
graphing an  interior  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  secure 
detail,  to  have  objects  close  to  the  camera,  in  the  middle 
distance,  and  those  more  remote,  equally  sharp. 

64.  The  Size  of  the  Stops  are  numbered  in  different 
ways,  according  to  various  systems.  The  two  in  most  use 
are  the  "f"  and  the  "U.  S."  (Uniform  System.)  The  f  system 
refers  to  the  relation  of  aperature  to  focal  length ;  while  the 
U.  S.  is  a  uniform  series  of  markings  based  on  the  same 
principles.  More  detailed  information  regarding  these  sys- 
tems is  given  in  the  advanced  instruction  in  Volume  VI.  It 
may  be  as  well  to  state  here,  that  on  shutters  of  American 
manufacture  the  Uniform  System  of  numbering  the  stops 
is  universally  used,  while  the  diaphragms  on  anastigmat 
lenses  of  foreign  manufacture  are  marked  according  to  the  f 
system. 

65.  The  corresponding  values  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing series : 

U.  S 1       2       4      8     16     32     64  128  256 

f .....4       5.6    8     11.3  16     22.6  32     45     64 

66.  The  exposure  with  a  certain  stop  is  one-half  of  the 
next  smaller  and  double  that  of  the  one  next  larger;   i.  e.t 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  61 

if  stop  f/8  requires  an  exposure  of  one  second,  the  next 
smaller,  f/11.3,  will  need  two  seconds;  while  f/5.6,  the  next 
larger,  will  need  but  one-half  second's  exposure,  and  f/4 
one-fourth  of  a  second.  Or,  in  the  U.  S.  numbers  stop  No. 
4  requires  one  second,  No.  8  will  need  two  seconds,  No.  2 
one-half  second,  and  No.  1  one-fourth  of  a  second.  The 
largest  opening  or  the  largest  working  aperture  of  the  lens 
on  the  average  hand  camera  is  f/8  or  U.  S.  4.  For  the  be- 
ginner, who  is  apt  to  become  confused  by  the  diaphragm 
numbers,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  large  numbers 
indicate  small  openings,  and  that  the  smaller  the  opening  the 
longer  the  exposure  required. 

67.  Reversible  Back.  All  modern  high  grade  folding 
plate  cameras  are  supplied  with  a  reversible  back.  This  is 
to  enable  the  user  to  make  either  horizontal  or  vertical  views 
by  merely  reversing  the  back  attachment  without  changing 
the  position  of  the  camera.  The  back  is  held  in  place  by 
means  of  firm  clamps,  which  are  easily  released  when  de- 
sired. The  ground-glass  is  attached  to  the  frame  of  the 
reversible  back,  so  it  is  always  in  correct  position. 

68.  Focusing.  Focusing  a  camera  means  the  act  of 
bringing  the  image  into  focus ;  i.  e.,  the  securing  of  a  clear, 
sharp  outline  of  the  image  upon  the  sensitized  plate  or  film. 
The  focus  is  secured  by  moving  the  lens  a  certain  distance 
from  the  ground-glass  or  focusing  screen.  This  distance 
depends  upon  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  employed. 

69.  Fixed  Focus. — This  term  applies  chiefly  to  small 
box  cameras  or  to  those  fitted  with  short  focus  single  lenses. 
It  does  not  mean  any  distinct  kind  of  a  lens  with  extraor- 
dinary power  of  covering  objects  near  or  far  in  one  plane. 
The  lens  is  only  a  fixed  focus  when  it  is  immovable.    While 


62  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

any  lens  can,  practically  speaking,  be  made  a  fixed  focus, 
yet  its  length  of  focus  determines  the  extent  it  will  focus 
sharp  all  objects  on  one  plane.  Therefore,  those  only  of 
very  short  focus  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  only  small 
pictures  are  satisfactorily  made  with  fixed  focus  cameras. 
With  them,  the  difference  in  focus  of  any  object,  far  or 
near,  is  so  little  that  it  is  not  noticeable  in  the  picture.  On 
the  larger  sizes,  however,  it  would  be  quite  visible.  There 
is  no  altering  of  the  focus  in  a  fixed  focus  box  camera ;  the 
lens  in  the  camera  is  stationary. 

70.  Fixed  Focus  Folding  Camera. — In  the  case  of  the 
fixed  focus  bellows  camera,  the  bellows  extends  to  its  full 
length  and  locks.  It  is  then,  practically  speaking,  a  fixed 
focus  camera,  the  same  as  a  box  camera,  for  there  is  no 
adjusting  of  the  bellows.  Hence  the  term,  fixed  focus  fold- 
ing camera. 

71.  Universal  Focus. — The  term  Universal  Focus  is 
quite  frequently  applied  to  adjustable  focusing  cameras.  We 
speak  of  the  Universal  Focus  when  the  pointer  is  set  at  100 
feet  on  the  focusing  scale.  All  objects  beyond  this  distance 
are  in  focus.  When,  therefore,  the  bellows  of  the  camera  is 
extended  and  the  indicator  points  at  100,  we  speak  of  setting 
it  at  Universal  Focus,  or  point  of  infinity. 

72.  Extending  the  Bellows  for  Focusing. — By  turning 
the  lever  or  pressing  the  clamp  directly  beneath  the  lens  at 
the  base  of  the  camera  front,  you  release  the  lock,  and  the 
bellows  can  be  drawn  forward  on  the  track  or  slide  provided 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  by  sliding  the  bellows  backward  and 
forward,  bringing  the  lens  closer  to  or  extending  farther 
away  from  the  ground-glass,  that  the  focus  is  produced. 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  63 

73.  Scale  Focusing. — Observe  on  the  left  side  of  the 
camera  a  scale  usually  marked  No.  6-10-15-25-50-100.  These 
figures  indicate  the  distance  the  camera  should  be  placed 
from  the  object  to  be  photographed.  No.  6  would  indicate 
that  the  camera  must  be  six  feet  away  from  the  object  in 
order  to  have  it  in  focus.  The  pointer  being  placed  at  No. 
25  would  indicate  that  when  the  camera  is  twenty-five  feet 
from  the  object  it  would  be  in  focus.  It  is  safe  when  dis- 
tances are  over  50  feet  to  set  the  point  of  the  indicator  at 
100,  as  this  then  becomes,  practically,  Universal  Focus. 

74.  Ground-Glass  Focusing. — By  focusing  is  meant, 
as  stated  above,  the  obtaining  of  good,  clear  outlines  of  the 
image,  on  the  ground-glass,  of  any  object  being  photo- 
graphed. This  focus  is  obtained  by  the  racking,  or  draw- 
ing out  of  the  bellows  until  the  image  appears  perfectly 
sharp  on  all  parts  of  the  ground-glass.  When  the  camera  is 
used  without  a  tripod,  the  focusing  scale  on  the  side  of 
the  camera  bed  is  employed  and  the  pointer  is  set  on  the  line 
opposite  the  figures,  indicating  the  distance  between  the 
camera  and  object,  which  should  give  a  perfect  focus.  It  is 
not  advisable  to  alter  the  camera  in  any  particular  until 
thoroughly  familiar  with  all  its  parts.  To  detect  any  error 
in  the  focusing  scale,  should  your  pictures  be  out  of  focus 
(i.  e.,  not  sharp),  study  the  following  instructions  and 
learn  how  to  correct  the  fault.  Again,  the  proving  of  the 
focus  is  also  a  very  good  practice,  for  one  cannot  become 
too  well  acquainted  with  his  instrument. 

75.  Testing  the  Focus. — In  order  to  test  the  focus 
select  a  building  or  object  in  strong  sunlight.  Determine 
the  distance  this  object  or  building  is  from  the  camera,  which 
distance,  in  order  to  obtain  good  drawing,  should  be  suf- 


64  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

ficient  to  allow  the  image  not  to  appear  crowded  on  the 
finder.  Then,  set  the  pointer  on  the  camera  to  the  corres- 
ponding number  of  feet  on  the  scale  attached  to  the  camera 
bed,  which  should  give  a  sharp  focus. 

76.  After  pressing  the  bulb  the  first  time  and  opening 
the  shutter,  point  the  camera  at  the  object  upon  which  the 
sun  is  shining.  Look  on  the  ground-glass  and  carefully 
examine  the  image.  If  this  image  appears  clear,  sharp  and 
distinct,  the  scale  on  the  side  of  the  camera  is  correct.  If 
it  is  indistinct,  and  the  distance  from  the  object  has  not  been 
misjudged,  the  scale  is  incorrect  and  cannot  be  relied  upon. 
These  scales,  however,  are  usually  correct,  but  in  order  to 
test  them  properly  the  camera  must  be  placed  upon  some- 
thing rigid,  a  tripod  preferred. 

77.  Cover  the  head  and  camera  with  the  focusing  cloth. 
With  the  left  hand  gather  the  focusing  cloth  up  under  the 
chin.  This  will  then  exclude  all  light  except  that  which 
comes  through  the  lens  and  produces  the  image  on  the 
ground-glass.  Look  on  the  ground-glass.  Do  not  try  to 
look  through  it.  It  will  take  a  little  practice  to  enable  the 
beginner  to  see  the  image  clearly  on  the  ground-glass.  The 
image,  of  course,  will  be  reversed  (upside  down).  With 
the  right  hand  reach  to  the  front  of  the  camera  and  extend 
the  bellows  by  moving  the  front  section  containing  the  lens. 
Slide  it  backward  and  forward  until  the  image  appears  per- 
fectly distinct  and  sharp  on  the  ground-glass. 

78.  Correcting  the  Focusing  Scale. — After  securing 
proper  focus,  measure  the  distance  from  camera  to  object, 
and  if  this  distance  agrees  with  the  figure  indicated  on  the 
focusing  scale,  then  the  scale  is  correct.  If  they  do  not  corres- 
pond, the  scale  can  be  corrected  by  focusing  on  some  object 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  65 

100  feet  away.  When  a  correct  focus  is  secured  at  this 
given  distance,  and  the  actual  distance  does  not  register 
correctly  with  the  pointer  on  the  focusing  scale,  then  remove 
the  plate  containing  the  scale  and  replace  it  so  that  the  figure 
100  is  opposite  the  pointer.  The  rest  of  the  scale  will  then 
be  found  to  be  all  right.  However,  when  possible,  in  order 
to  insure  perfect  focus,  it  is  advisable  to  focus  on  the  ground- 
glass,  paying  no  attention'  to  the  scale.  When  using  the 
camera  without  a  tripod  for  snap-shot  work,  it  is  convenient, 
of  course,  to  have  the  scale,  and,  therefore,  it  should  be 
correct.  As  all  reputable  manufacturers  test  their  instru- 
ments very  carefully  for  this  particular  feature,  it  will  be 
found  that  they  are,  in  almost  every  instance,  correct. 

79.  Finders. — Most  hand  cameras  and  kodaks  are  fitted 
with  a  little  box  covered  with  a  metal  hood,  a  lens  in  the 
front  of  it  and  a  small  piece  of  glass  on  the  top.  This  is 
called  a  finder,  and  is,  in  effect,  a  miniature  camera.  Every- 
thing visible  on  this  finder  will  be  visible  on  the  ground- 
glass,  and  everything  visible  on  the  ground-glass  should 
be  visible  on  the  plate  when  developed.  Finders  are  fitted 
with  fixed  focus  lenses,  and,  therefore,  the  object  at  any 
distance  will  naturally  appear  sharp  on  the  finder. 

80.  If  it  is  desired  to  secure  the  focus  by  the  scale  on 
the  side  of  the  camera,  as,  for  instance,  in  kodaks,  judge 
carefully  the  distance  to  the  object  to  be  photographed. 
With  a  Httle  practice  this  can  be  accomplished  successfully. 
A  good  plan  is  to  measure  by  strides,  and  by  pacing  off  the 
distance  it  will  then  be  possible  to  judge  more  accurately 
the  right  number  of  feet.  The  better  way,  as  said  before, 
is  to  focus  on  the  ground-glass.  The  finder  should  only  be 
used  when  the  instrument  is  employed  as  a  hand  camera ;  i. 


66  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

e.,  without  the  tripod.  Thus,  the  object  to  be  photographed 
will  be  located  in  the  finder  instead  of  on  the  ground-glass. 
Remember,  the  finder  is  only  used  for  locating  the  object, 
but  not  for  focusing.  The  focusing 'must  be  done  either  on 
the  ground-glass  or  with  the  scale. 

81.  Fixed  Focus  Box  Cameras  Require  No  Focusing. 
— The  fixed  focus  or  box  cameras  contain  no  scale. 
As  they  are  all  a  fixed  general  focus,  such  cameras  need  no 
focusing,  and  whatever  is  visible  in  the  finder  will  appear 
in  focus  on  the  plate  or  film.  But  with  all  other  folding 
cameras  containing  focusing  scale  or  ground-glass,  the  focus 
must  be  obtained  by  the  above  method  and  not  in  the  finder. 
Use  the  finder  only  for  locating  the  view  on  the  plate.  Al- 
ways remember,  first,  to  locate  the  view  in  the  finder,  for 
whatever  is  visible  in  the  finder  will  be  registered  on  the 
plate.  If  the  camera  is  pointed  at  a  building  and  it  looks 
crowded  in  the  finder,  then  step  back  farther  from  the 
building  until  good  proportions  of  margin  all  around  are 
secured.  Judge  the  distance  from  the  object  or  building 
and  draw  out  the  bellows  until  the  pointer  registers  oppo- 
site the  number  of  feet  which  is  the  distance  between  the 
camera  and  the  object.    The  exposure  can  now  be  made. 

82.  Rising,  Falling  and  Sliding  Front. — Practically  all 
folding  cameras  have  a  rising  and  falling  front,  i.  e.,  it  is 
possible  to  raise  and  lower  the  front-board  to  which  the  lens 
is  attached.  To  a  certain  extent,  this  feature  takes  the  place 
of  a  swing-back  or  swing-bed.  When  photographing  a 
building  that  is  not  too  high  and  your  camera  has  only  the 
rising  and  falling  front  but  no  swing-back  or  swing-bed 
attachment,  the  camera  should  remain  perfectly  level  so  that 
the  ground-glass  will  be  parallel  to  the  building.  To  provide 
more  space  or  sky  above  the  building,  or  should  the  building 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  S7 

be  so  high  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  get  the  top  of  the  building 
on  the  plate,  raise  the  front-board,  to  which  the  lens  is  at- 
tached. Where  the  camera  is  fitted  with  a  swing-bed,  as 
well  as  with  a  rising  front,  both  should  be  employed  when 
photographing  extremely  high  buildings. 

83.  Many  folding  cameras  have,  in  addition  to  the  ris- 
ing and  falling  front,  a  sliding  front,  which  is  of  great  advan- 
tage when  working  in  confined  places.  It  is  possible,  by 
moving  the  sliding  front  one  way  or  the  other,  to  secure 
more  or  less  of  either  side  of  a  view  without  altering  the 
position  or  moving  the  camera  whatsoever;  but  it  is  very 
seldom  necessary,  in  'fact  it  is  not  so  convenient  in  most 
cases,  to  use  the  sliding  front  as  it  is  to  slightly  turn  the 
camera  on  the  tripod  head. 

84.  Swing-back  and  Swing-bed. — ^While  all  folding 
cameras  are  not  supplied  with  swing-backs  nor  even  swing- 
beds,  many  have  one  or  the  other  of  these  attachments.  The 
following  is  a  brief  description  of  their  use : 

The  swing-hack  is  at  the  rear  of  the  camera  and  is  so 
adjusted  that  it  permits  the  ground-glass  to  swing  perpen- 
dicular regardless  of  the  angle  at  which  the  camera  is  tilted. 

The  swing-bed  is  simply  the  front  or  bed  of  the  folding 
camera  containing  the  track  on  which  the  sliding  front 
moves,  and  the  supporting  arms  or  braces  which  hold  this 
bed  in  position  are  so  arranged  as  to  make  it  possible  to 
adjust  the  bed  to  any  desired  angle,  thereby  enabling  you 
to  admit  as  much  sky  or  exclude  as  much  foreground  as 
desired.  In  this  way  the  body  of  the  camera  can  remain 
in  any  position  at  all  times,  and  the  ground-glass  will  always 
be  perpendicular. 


68  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

85.  The  swing-back  or  the  swing-bed  should  be  used 
when  photographing  extremely  high  buildings  in  order  to 
obtain  rectilinear  lines.  When  photographing  a  high  build- 
ing it  is  necessary  to  point  the  lens  upward,  and  if  your  in- 
strument is  fitted  with  the  swing-back  this  back  must  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  keep  it  in  a  perpendicular  position  at  all  times. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  your  camera  has  a  swing-bed,  the 
camera  itself  should  at  all  times  remain  in  the  same  position 
(i.  e.,  the  ground-glass  must  always  be  perpendicular),  but 
the  swing-bed  can  be  raised  and  fastened  in  position,  which 
will  give  you  exactly  the  same  effect  as  to  operate  the  swing- 
back  (when  the  whole  camera  is  pointed  upward).  When- 
ever the  camera  is  tipped  without  any  change  being  made 
in  the  position  of  the  ground-glass  the  lower  portion  of  the 
building  will  be  nearer  to  the  camera  than  the  top,  and  the 
nearer  an  object  is  to  the  camera  the  larger  it  will  appear 
on  the  ground-glass  and  it  is,  therefore,  quite  obvious  that 
the  lower  portion  of  the  building  will  appear  larger  and 
broader  than  the  top.  (See  Illustration  No.  9.)  When 
pointing  the  camera  upward  it  is  necessary  to  pull  the 
swing-back  out  at  the  bottom,  which  tips  the  top  of  the 
swing-back  toward  the  building,  making  the  ground-glass 
parallel  to  the  building,  or  the  object  being  photographed. 
Of  course,  when  using  an  instrument  equipped  with  the 
swing-bed  the  ground-glass  always  remains  parallel  with 
the  building  and  this  difficulty  will  not  be  encountered. 

86.  Horizontal  Swing. — Most  view  cameras,  and  many 
of  the  better  class  hand  cameras,  are  provided,  in  addition 
to  the  perpendicular  swing,  with  a  horizontal  one,  the  object 
of  this  being  to  bring  into  focus  those  objects  which  are 
nearer  to  the  camera  at  one  side  than  those  on  the  other. 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  69 

as,  for  instance,  a  street  scene  showing  the  line  of  buildings 
on  one  side  of  the  street  which  is  being  photographed  at  an 
angle.  The  buildings  nearer  to  the  camera  may  be  brought 
into  sharp  focus,  in  which  case  those  in.  the  distance  will  be 
indistinct,  and  by  the  horizontal  swing  these  latter  can  be 
brought  into  approximate  focus  with  those  nearer  to  the 
camera. 

87.  Double  Swing  is  the  combination  of  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  swings,  by  which  any  of  the  corrections  of  the 
image  previously  mentioned  can  be  made. 

88.  Rack  and  Pinion. — Most  of  the  higher  class  folding 
cameras  are  supplied  with  rack  and  pinion  movement,  es- 
pecially those  which  have  a  double  extension  or  those  with 
an  extremely  long  bellows.  On  the  side  of  the  bed  of  the 
camera  is  a  milled  head.  By  pulling  this  out  and  turning 
it  the  bellows  will.be  extended.  This  rack  and  pinion  is,  of 
course,  used  for  accurate  focusing. 

89.  Tripod. — The  tripod  is  an  accessory  employed  as 
a  stand  or  support  on  which  to  place  the  camera  while 
focusing,  or  making  time  exposures.  The  objection  to  its 
use,  in  instantaneous  work,  is  the  time  it  takes  to  place 
the  camera  upon  this  stand. 

The  tripod,  as  its  name  implies,  consists  of  three  legs, 
each  of  which  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened  as  desired; 
thus,  it  is  possible  to  get  it  into  a  very  compact  form.  These 
legs  are  attached  to  a  head,  upon  which  the  camera  is  fast- 
ened by  means  of  a  thumb  screw.  As  previously  stated,  in 
instantaneous  work  you  can  make  the  exposure  by  holding 
the  camera  in  your  hand;  but  for  making  time  exposures 
you  should  use  the  tripod.  One  of  sufficient  rigidity  should 
be  employed  so  that  when  making  the  exposure  the  camera 


70  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

will  remain  absolutely  steady,  for  the  least  movement  during 
exposure  will  cause  a  blurred  image. 

When  the  camera  is  attached  to  the  tripod,  one  leg 
should  be  under  the  bed  of  the  camera,  pointing  toward  the 
object  to  be  photographed.  This  will  leave  one  leg  at  each 
side  of  the  rear  of  the  camera,  thus  permitting  easy  focus- 
ing, and  observation  on  the  ground-glass  of  exactly  what 
is  to  be  produced  by  the  plate.  By  this  arrangement  all 
of  the  legs  of  the  tripod  will  be  out  of  the  way. 

90.  Another  advantage  in  this  arrangement  is :  Should 
it  be  desired,  while  focusing,  to  raise  or  lower  the  front  of 
the  camera,  this  can  be  easily  accomplished  by  simply  bring- 
ing the  front  leg  closer  or  extending  it  farther  from  the 
camera.  (See  Illustration  No.  10,  of  an  adjustable  tripod 
set  up  for  use.) 

91.  Plate  Holders. — The  plate  holder  is  essentially  a 
part  of  the  plate  camera.  It  is  a  case  or  holder,  as  its  name 
implies,  in  which  the  sensitive  plate  can  be  carried  both 
before  and  after  the  exposure,  being  fully  protected  from 
the  light. 

92.  The  plate  holders  furnished  with  all  modern  makes 
of  hand  or  view  cameras  have  two  compartments.  In  each 
side  it  is  possible  to  place  one  sensitive  plate;  hence  they 
are  termed  double  plate  holders.  A  slide,  fitting  in  at  one 
end,  protects  the  sensitive  surface  of  the  plate  from  being 
exposed  to  the  light.  The  plate  holders  should  be  loaded 
with  the  sensitive  plates,  and  the  slides  placed  in  position, 
in  the  dark-room.  You  should  have  at  least  three  plate 
holders  with  a  camera.  Load  as  many  holders  as  desired. 
To  make  the  exposure  the  holder  is  inserted  in  front  of  the 


Inserting  the 
Slide 


Illustration  No.  i  : 

The  right  way 

See  Paragraph  No.  93 


Illustration  ISo.  12 

The  wrong  way 

See  Paragraph  No.  93 


Illustration  No.  9 

Result  of  tipping  camera  without  proper 

adjustment  of  swing  back. 

See  Paragraph  No.  85 


Illustration  No.  ro 

Adjustable  Tripod 

See  Paragraph  No.  90 


Illustration  13 

Dark  Room  Lamp 

See  Paragraph  No.  99 


Illustration  No.  14 
Roll  of  Film 


Illustration  No.  15 

A  Temporary  Dark  Room 

See  Paragraph  No.  98 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It  73 

ground-glass  (an  aperture  for  the  plate  holder  being  found 
at  the  side  of  the  camera).  In  most  cases  there  are  heavy- 
springs  which  keep  the  ground-glass  in  place.  When  the 
plate  holder  is  inserted  the  ground-glass  is  forced  back,  and 
the- spring  serves  to  hold  the  plate  holder  flush  to  the  camera. 

93.  Inserting  Slide  in  Plate  Holder. — You  will  notice 
that  the  handle  or  top  part  of  the  slide,  which  covers  the 
plate  in  the  holder,  is  painted  a  light  color  on  one  side,  while 
the  other  side  is  black.  When  you  load  your  holder,  have 
the  light  side  of  the  slide  facing  out.  After  you  have  made 
the  exposure  return  the  slide  to  its  proper  position,  with 
the  black  side  out;  in  other  words,  the  black  side  should 
face  the  front  of  the  camera  after  the  exposure  is  made, 
indicating  that  the  plate  on  that  side  of  the  holder  is  ex- 
posed. (See  Illustrations  No.  11  and  No.  12  for  the  right 
and  wrong  way  of  inserting  the  slide  in  the  slot  of  the 
holder.)  Always  push  the  slide  in  straight,  and  never  one 
corner  first,  as  that  is  apt  to  fog  the  plate. 

94.  By  carefully  following  these  directions  no  trouble 
will  be  experienced  in  keeping  track  of  the  exposure — i.  e., 
knowing  exactly  which  plates  have  been  exposed  and  which 
have  not. 

95.  Dark-Room.— A  room  of  some  kind,  in  which  to 
undertake  all  the  operations  of  loading  the  plate  holders, 
removing  the  exposed  plates  from  the  holders,  developing 
the  plates,  etc.,  is  necessary,  except  where,  the  daylight  load- 
ing films  arc  used  and  the  development  is  done  in  the  now 
universally  used  film  tank.  This  room  is  commonly  termed 
a  dark-room,  and  must  be  absolutely  free  from  all  white 
light  or  light  of  any  kind  that  may  act  on  the  dry  plate.  To 
insure  the  room  being  perfectly  dark,  it  is  always  a  wise 


74  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

plan  to  wait  two  or  three  minutes  in  the  room,  after  the 
door  has  beeen  closed,  until  the  eye  has  become  accustomed 
to  the  darkness.  Rays  of  light  which  were  not  then  per- 
ceptible will  make  themselves  apparent,  and  these  should 
be  carefully  blocked  out  with  cloth,  felt  or  heavy  black 
paper.  The  only  light  that  can  be  used  in  the  dark-room 
during  the  handling  of  the  sensitive  plate,  from  the  loading 
of  the  holder  until  after  the  fixing  of  the  plate,  is  the  ruby 
light,  which  is  non-actinic — i.  e.,  has  no  chemical  action  on 
the  sensitive  plate. 

96.  A  closet  or  the  bath-room,  or  any  other  room, 
can,  of  course,  be  used  for  a  dark-room,  providing  every 
possible  avenue  where  light  may  enter  can  be  closed.  If  it 
is  not  convenient  to  have  a  dark-room  of  this  kind,  load  the 
holders  and  develop  the  plates  at  night,  in  a  room  from 
which  every  ray  of  white  or  actinic  light  has  been  excluded. 

97.  In  the  dark-room,  aside  from  the  ruby  lamp,  there 
should  be  a  perfectly  dry  shelf,  on  which  to  load  and  unload 
the  plate  holders  and  keep  the  plates.  There  should  be 
another  shelf  or  small  table,  on  which  to  develop,  where  the 
developing  solutions,  trays,  etc.,  should  be  kept.  If  possible, 
a  sink  and  running  water  should  also  be  in  the  dark-room. 
If,  however,  these  are  wanting,  a  large  basin  or  tray  can  be 
employed  and  provision  made  for  one  or  two  pails  of  water. 
Procure  a  large  wooden  pail  and  place  a  small  faucet  near 
the  bottom.  In  this  pail  place  clear  water  to  use  in  mixing 
the  chemicals  and  in  rinsing  the  plates.  Have  another  pail 
in  which  to  pour  the  waste  water,  old  developer,  etc. 

98.  Shelves  on  the  wall,  on  which  to  place  various 
stock  solutions,  trays,  graduates,  etc.,  will  be  found  very 
convenient.     (See  Illustration  No.  15  of  a  temporarily  ar- 


Illustration  No.  i6 
An  Inexpensive  Dark  Room  Sink 
See  Paragraph  No.  q8 


Illustration  No.  17 
Loading /Plate  Holder 
See  Paragraph  No.  1 03 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It.  77 

ranged  Dark-Room,  being  a  corner  of  a  bath-room.  Also 
No.  16,  a  cheaply  constructed  Dark-room,  Sink,  Shelves, 
etc.) 

Note— Detailed  descriptions  of  conveniently  constructed  dark- 
rooms are  given  in  Chapter  XXXI. 

99.  Ruby  Light. — As  the  dry  plate  on  which  the  image 
is  to  be  photographed  is  extremely  sensitive  to  all  white 
light,  only  non-actinic  light — i.  e.,  light  that  has  no  appre- 
ciable effect  on  the  plate — can  be  employed  in  handling  it. 
Such  light  should  be  of  a  ruby  color,  or  reddish  yellow,  and 
is  usually  obtained  from  what  is  called  a  dark-room  lamp. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  good  dark-room  lamps,  arranged 
to  burn  oil,  candles,  gas,  incandescent  light,  etc.,  and  these 
are  fitted  with  glass  specially  colored  to  give  the  correct 
kind  of  light  for  handling  the  plate.  A  lamp  burning  kero- 
sene, or  fitted  with  a  bulb  for  an  incandescent  lamp,  is  the 
most  satisfactory  to  use,  candle  lamps  not  being  so  satis- 
factory. (See  Illustration  No.  13,  of  an  inexpensive  dark- 
room lamp.) 

100.  Developing  Outfits. — A  few  essential  pieces  of 
paraphernalia  which  every  amateur  should  possess  for  the 
development  of  the  exposed  plate,  are  a  good  ruby  lamp, 
four  or  five  trays,  to  fit  the  size  of  plates  or  films  used — one 
tray  to  be  used  only  for  developing,  another  for  fixing  only, 
the  other  two  or  three  trays  for  washing  and  after  manipula- 
tion ;  one  graduate,  about  8  ounces  in  size,  one  stirring  rod, 
and  a  camel's  hair  brush. 

101.  The  essential  chemicals  for  the  begfinner  are  the 
developing  powders  and  hyposulphite  of  soda  for  fixing. 
Later  when  preparing  the  solutions  from  the  separate  in- 
gredients, it  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  required  chemicals. 


78  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

102.  Opening  of  Box  of  Plates. — Plates  of  American 
manufacture  are  packed  back  to  back  in  boxes  of  one  dozen 
each,  the  faces  being  slightly  separated  by  a  small  piece  of 
cardboard,  and  are  protected  from  the  light  by  a  double 
cover.  To  open  the  box,  run  a  knife  blade  along  the  under 
edge  and  cut  between  the  two  layers  of  cardboard  which 
form  the  two  covers.  This  operation  can  be  done  in  the 
white  light,  but  neither  cover  should  be  removed  outside 
of  the  dark-room.  Before  removing  the  covers  of  the  box  of 
plates  the  ruby  lamp  should  be  lighted,  as  it  is  necessary 
to  have  illumination  of  some  kind  by  which  to  work. 
Previous  to  closing  the  door,  remove  the  slides  from  the 
plate  holders  and  carefully  dust  both  the  slides  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  holders. 

103.  Loading  the  Holders. — ^When  ready  to  load  the 
holders,  having  entered  the  dark-room  and  closed  the  door, 
remove  the  covers  from  the  box  of  plates  and  turn  back 
the  black  paper  in  which  they  are  wrapped.  The  top  plate 
will  be  face  or  film  side  down.  Pick  this  plate  up  by  the 
edge,  being  extremely  careful  not  to  touch  either  surface. 
At  the  lower  end  of  the  holder  is  a  spring.  Place  the  edge 
of  the  sensitive  plate,  with  the  film  side  out,  against  the 
spring,  and  press  down  on  the  spring  until  the  plate  drops 
into  place.  In  some  plate  holders  the  spring  holding  the 
plate  in  place  is  controlled  by  a  little  metal  lever  on  the  out- 
side or  edge  of  the  holder.  By  pulling  down  on  the  lever  on 
the  right  hand  side,  it  presses  down  the  spring  and  the  plate 
falls  into  place.  After  the  plate  is  in  place,  press  the  lever 
back  into  position,  when  the  plate  is  secured.  (See  Illus- 
tration No.  17 — loading  the  ordinary  holder.) 

104.  After  loading  one  side  of  a  plate  holder,  carefully 


The  Camera — How  to  Operate  It.  79 

draw  the  camel's  hair  brush  over  the  surface  of  the  plate,  to 
remove  any  dust  which  may  have  accumulated  on  its  sur- 
face. With  the  light  colored  side  facing  out,  insert  the  slide 
in  the  slot  at  the  end  of  the  holder,  thus  covering  the  sen- 
sitive plate.  Proceed  in  like  manner  to  load  the  other  side 
of  the  holder,  as  well  as  the  remaining  holders.  The  sec- 
ond plate  in  the  box  will  be  face  or  film  side  up,  the  third 
plate  film  down,  etc.  Carefully  replace  the  covers  in  proper 
order  on  the  box  of  plates,  after  all  holders  are  loaded.  Then 
the  door  of  the  dark-room  may  be  opened  and  the  ruby 
light  extinguished. 


CHAPTER  III. 
How  to  Proceed. 

105.  The  first  and  most  important  consideration  in 
all  good  picture  making  is  the  angle  of  light.  By  compar- 
ing the  lens  and  camera  with  the  human  eye,  one  can  have 
a  fair  idea  of  the  effect  of  light  upon  the  sensitized  plate. 
For  instance,  when  viewing  a  building  with  the  sun  in 
front  of  you,  shining  toward  you,  the  effect  of  light  is  very 
blinding  to  the  eye,  and  the  object  or  building  appears  dim 
and  hazy  in  its  shadows.  This  same  effect  is  produced  on 
the  sensitized  plate  in  the  camera,  by  the  light  entering 
through  the  lens.  In  other  words,  in  order  to  obtain  clear 
results  the  camera  should  never  be  pointed  toward  the 
sun.  Therefore,  the  beginner  should  exercise  care  that  the 
sun  is  to  one  side,  or  even  behind  the  camera. 

106.  The  beginner  can  produce  good,  clear  pictures 
by  having  the  sun  fall  full  on  the  side  and  the  front  of  a 
building,  for  then  the  shadows  are  so  small  and  few  that  he 
is  sure  of  securing  a  strong  picture ;  yet  this  is  not  always 
necessary.  Lights  and  shadows  that  are  clearly  visible  to 
the  eye,  and  do  not  affect  or  weaken  it,  will  have  the  same 
action  on  the  sensitized  plate  through  the  lens,  and  the 
different  degrees  of  light  and  shadow  on  the  object  or 
building  will  be  reproduced  on  the  plate. 

107.  Dark  buildings,  such  as  those  of  red  brick  or 
very  dark  painted  houses,  should  be  photographed  with  the 

81 


82  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

sun  shining  on  the  side  and  front  of  the  building.  Were 
such  a  building  photographed  on  the  shadow  side,  the  dark 
color,  with  little  or  no  high-lights  would  produce  a  very  dull, 
flat  picture,  while  with  a  very  light  color  building  it  is 
entirely  permissible  to  photograph  from  the  shadow  side, 
for  the  entire  building  being  light  in  color  the  shadows  will 
be  sufficiently  illuminated.  The  sun  shining  on  the  front, 
throwing  shadows  from  projections,  cornices,  etc.,  would 
give  the  required  snap  and  contrast  to  the  entire  picture. 

108.  On  the  other  hand,  if  this  light  colored  building 
were  photographed  with  the  sun  falling  on  both  side  and 
front,  there  would  be  little  contrast  and  the  artistic  effect 
would  be  lost,  yet  from  a  commercial  standpoint  it  would 
still  be  a  good  picture.  If  the  building  were  a  factory,  or  a 
large  store,  then  full  sunlight  on  the  front  of  the  building 
might  be  necessary ;  but  when  photographing  residences,  the 
prettiest  effects  are  produced  when  more  shadows  are  vis- 
ible, producing  greater  effects  of  contrast. 

109.  A  thorough  understanding  of  the  two  preceding 
paragraphs  will  show  the  beginner  that  the  effects  of  light 
and  shadow,  as  shown  on  the  ground-glass,  should  be  care- 
fully studied,  as  the  results  shown  on  this  ground-glass  will 
be  reproduced  upon  the  sensitive  plate  when  a  proper  expos- 
ure is  made.  Careful  observation  should  be  made  of  the 
appearance  of  different  objects  and  buildings,  trees,  shrub- 
bery, fences,  etc.,  with  the  sun  shining  upon  them  at  differ- 
ent hours  of  the  day.  Frequently,  in  walking  along  a  street 
the  beautiful  appearance  of  a  residence  may  be  observed 
when  the  sun  falls  upon  it,  with  little  shadows  thrown  from 
the  cornices  and  trimmings,  giving  them  a  boldness  and  an 
effectiveness  which   are   entirely   lacking  when   the   same 


Illustration  No.  i8 

Light  liiiilding  Properly  Photographed 

See  Paragraph  No.  109 


Tllustralion  No.  19 
Dark  Building  Improperly  Photographed 
See  Paragraph  No.  109 


WM 

^K 

-% 

^Jl 

n 

H 

^4 

M 

H 

Ul^^fl 

P^^^^^ 

^^"^^*  ^H 

j 

w 

/  / 

^H 

^: 

g 

Hi 

.-^ n 

1 

i....;.uation  No.  20 
Effect  of  Proper  Angle  of  Light 
See  Paragraph  No.  1 1 1 


Illustration  No.  21 
Illustrating  the  Effect  of  Blistering 
See  Paragraph  No.  i2i^ 


How  to  Proceed.  85 

building  is  viewed  from  a  different  point,  or  at  another 
hour  of  the  day,  when  it  may  appear  very  dull  and  flat.  It 
follows  from  this  that  photographs  should  be  made  at  that 
time  of  the  day  when  the  sun  supplies  the  most  shadows  to 
the  object  or  residence  you  are  photographing.  See  Illus- 
trations Nos.  18  and  19  of  a  building  photographed  under 
both  conditions. 

110.  To  demonstrate  more  clearly  the  effect  produced 
by  light  and  shadow  take  your  camera,  attach  it  to  your 
tripod,  and  view  on  the  ground-glass  the  object  or  building 
from  the  side  upon  which  the  sun  is  shining;  then  transfer 
the  camera  to  the  opposite  or  shadow  side  and  note  the  dif- 
ference in  illumination.  If  your  camera  is  not  fitted  with  a 
ground-glass  these  same  effects  may  be  observed  in  the 
view  finder. 

111.  You  should  now  be  prepared  to  make  an  expos- 
ure. Select  any  building  or  object  you  may  desire.  As  said 
previously  never  point  the  lens  of  the  camera  toward  the 
sun,  but  have  the  sun  falling  from  the  rear  or  on  one  side  of 
the  camera.  (See  Illustration  No.  20.)  Should  the  rays  of 
sunlight  strike  into  the  lens  they  throw  a  reflection  from 
the  sides  of  the  lens  barrel,  causing  a  fog  or  blurred  appear- 
ance upon  the  ground-glass  and  plate,  and  the  resulting 
image  will  be  anything  but  satisfactory. 

112.  Carefully  focus  on  the  ground-glass  of  the  cam- 
era, using  full  aperture.  See  that  all  perpendicular  lines  of 
the  building  are  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  ground-glass. 
The  raising  or  lowering  of  the  lens  will  assist  you  in  getting 
the  building  properly  located  on  the  ground-glass. 

Note— The  beginner  who  is  working  with  a  box  or  similar 
form  of  folding  camera,  provided  only  with  a  single  lens,  should 


86  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

understand  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  photograph  build- 
ings and  obtain  the  straight  lines  of  the  building,  or  other  objects, 
accurately  produced  on  his  plate  or  film.  As  mentioned  under  the 
heading  of  lenses,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  to  obtain  straight  lines 
at  the  edges  of  your  plate  it  is  necessary  to  work  with  a  doublet 
instead  of  a  single  lens. 

113.  After  securing  a  sharp  focus,  stop  the  lens  down 
to  about  U.  S.  4,  or  to  its  equivalent,  f/8.  Now  close  the 
shutter  and  insert  the  plate  holder  in  the  opening  at  the 
side  of  the  camera  just  in  front  of  the  ground-glass.  Be  sure 
that  the  projection  or  groove  near  the  end  of  the  holder  fits 
snugly  into  the  groove  or  projection  on  the  back  of  the  camera. 
The  plate  holder  should  fit  perfectly  flush,  so  that  no  light  can 
enter  between  plate  holder  and  camera  to  fog  the  plate. 

114.  Being  absolutely  sure  that  the  shutter  is  closed 
and  set  (in  this  case  at  1-25  of  a  second,  or  if  your  shutter 
is  not  fitted  with  the  various  degrees  of  speed,  make  an 
instantaneous  exposure,  the  lever  being  placed  on  I),  then 
withdraw  the  slide  nearest  the  lens  and  press  the  finger 
release  or  bulb  once,  thus  making  the  exposure.  After  the  ex- 
posure is  made,  replace  the  slide  in  the  holder,  being  sure 
that  the  black  side  of  the  handle  is  facing  outward  or  towards 
the  lens.  This  signifies  that  the  plate  in  this  side  of  the 
holder  has  been  exposed. 

115.  For  the  value  of  the  experience  and  the  practice 
derived  it  is  advisable  to  make  two  exposures;  therefore, 
withdraw  the  plate  holder  and,  reversing  it,  insert  again  in 
the  camera,  and  after  setting  the  shutter  withdraw  the  slide 
of  the  unexposed  plate.  Make  another  exposure  of  identi- 
cally the  same  subject,  giving  the  same  time  (1-25  of  a  sec- 
ond). If  the  beginner  is  working  with  a  film  camera  he 
will,  of  course,  have  observed  his  picture  on  the  view  finder 


How  to  Proceed.  87 

and  focused  by  means  of  the  focusing  scale,  having  paced 
off  the  distance  from  the  camera  to  the  object,  if  uncertain 
as  to  his  ability  to  correctly  gauge  the  distance.  When  the 
first  exposure  has  been  made  wind  up  the  spool  of  film  to 
the  next  exposure,  and  make  a  second  exposure  as  just 
described.  Then  proceed  to  some  other  object  and  make 
two  more  pictures  of  that,  using  the  same  length  of  expos- 
ure. If  a  double  two  film  is  used  this  will  use  up  the 
entire  roll,  so  that  it  can  then  be  developed.  Then  return 
to  the  dark-room  and  proceed  to  develop  one  of  the  nega- 
tives. After  developing,  fixing,  washing  and  drying  this 
plate  or  film  make  a  proof  print  from  the  negative,  using  a 
printing-out  paper.  Note  the  results.  Is  it  clean,  clear, 
sharp,  brilliant,  and  above  all  has  it  pluck  and  roundness? 
If  not,  study  your  instruction  for  developing,  and  observe 
wherein  you  failed  to  produce  these  results  and  apply  the 
experience  gained  on  the  development  of  the  first  plate  to 
the  second  one  and  proceed  to  develop  it  and  endeavor  to 
overcome  your  first  errors.  Make  a  memorandum  on  the 
back  of  each  proof  print  of  your  methods  of  procedure,  and 
file  this  proof  in  your  letter  file  (proof  book)  for  further 
reference.  For  development  of  the  films  singly,  see 
Chapter  V. 

116.  Developing  Solutions. — The  use  of  prepared  de- 
veloping powders  is  recommended  to  the  beginner  for  his 
experiments  in  developing  plates  or  films.  These  powders 
can  be  procured  from  any  dealer  in  photographic  supplies. 
If  a  regulation  finishing  outfit  has  been  purchased  the  chem- 
icals included  therein  can  be  used.  Prepared  developing 
chemicals  only  require  dissolving  in  a  certain  quantity  of 
water,  the  directions  for  which  are  always  given  on  the 
package. 


88  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

117.  In  the  graduate,  which  has  been  thoroughly 
cleansed,  place  the  amount  of  water  specified  in  the  direc- 
tions. The  developing  powders  come,  generally,  in  two 
small  packages,  these  again  being  put  up  in  one  larger  pack- 
age, or,  the  powders  are  inserted  in  both  ends  of  a  glass 
vial,  separated  by  a  cork  or  wad.  Carefully  open  the  larger 
of  the  two  packages,  or  remove  the  cork  from  that  end  of 
the  vial  containing  the  larger  quantity  of  chemical,  and 
slowly  shake  the  contents  into  the  water  in  the  graduate, 
stirring  rapidly  until  all  is  thoroughly  dissolved.  This 
chemical,  which  is  generally  the  sulphite  and  carbonate  of 
soda,  if  not  made  to  dissolve  immediately  by  rapid  stirring 
will  cake  and  cause  considerable  trouble,  being  left  in  the 
solution  in  the  form  of  a  precipitate.  When  thoroughly 
dissolved  add  the  contents  of  the  smaller  package,  or  the 
smaller  quantity  of  chemical  in  the  vial,  which  is  the  devel- 
oping agent.    The  developer  is  now  ready  for  use. 

118.  Fixing  Solution. — After  mixing  your  developer, 
next  prepare  the  fixing  solution.  Take  a  handful  of  hypo 
and  place  in  the  4x5  tray  which  you  intend  to  use  for  hypo 
only,  and  fill  this  tray  about  two-thirds  full  of  water.  This 
should  give  a  proportion,  approximately,  of  one  ounce  of 
hypo  to  four  ounces  of  water.  Stir  this  with  a  small  wooden 
paddle,  or  glass  stirring-rod,  until  all  of  the  hypo  has  been 
dissolved.  Under  no  conditions  use  this  tray  for  any  other 
purpose  than  for  fixing.  Always  wash  the  hands  thoroughly 
after  handling  any  chemical.  Hypo,  especially,  will  give 
no  end  of  trouble  if  the  least  trace  of  it  is  carried  to  any 
other  bath. 

119.  Development. — Everything  is  now  in  readiness 
so  that  development  of  the  exposed  plate  may  be  proceeded 


How  to  Proceed.  89 

with.  With  the  developing  tray  carefully  rinsed  and  the 
ruby  lamp  lighted,  now  close  the  door  of  the  dark-room,  so 
that  there  is  absolutely  no  other  light  in  the  room  except 
that  which  comes  from  the  ruby  lamp.  Draw  the  slide  from 
the  plate  holder  and  remove  one  plate.  Sometimes  the 
plates  are  liable  to  stick  in  the  plate  holder.  By  pushing 
down  with  the  thumb  on  the  small  spring  at  the  end  of  the 
holder,  gently  tapping  the  holder  on  the  other  end,  and 
slightly  tipping  forward,  the  plate  will  fall  into  your  hand. 

120.  As  soon  as  the  plate  has  been  exposed  an  image 
has  been  formed,  although  invisible  until  acted  upon  by  the 
developer. 

121.  After  removing  the  plate  from  the  holder,  place  it 
in  the  tray  for  developing,  being  sure  that  you  have  the 
face  or  film  side  up.  Pour  sufficient  developer  over  the 
plate  to  cover  it,  and  in  doing  so,  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  developer  is  flowed  evenly  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
plate,  to  drive  oflf  all  the  air  and  not  allow  any  air-bells  to 
form.  If  the  developer  is  carelessly  thrown  onto  the  plate, 
or  if  the  plate  is  dropped  into  the  developer,  small  air-bells 
are  liable  to  form  on  the  surface  of  the  film,  which  will  pre- 
vent the  action  of  the  developer  on  the  portion  of  the  film 
which  they  cover  and  thus  cause  undeveloped  spots.  The 
plate  should  never  be  placed  in  water  before  development. 
In  the  case  of  films,  however,  it  is  preferable  to  wet  them  in 
water  before  placing  them  in  the  developer. 

122.  Always  use  enough  developer  to  fully  cover  the 
plate.  Four  ounces  of  solution  are  sufficient  for  a  4x5  tray. 
After  flowing  the  developer  over  the  plate,  the  tray  must  be 
rocked  gently,  and  the  development  carefully  watched.  In 
from  20  to  30  seconds  the  image  will  begin  to  appear.    If 


90  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

the  developer  is  cold,  the  image  will  be  much  slower  in 
making  its  appearance ;  yet  it  is  advisable  that  the  temper- 
ature should  not  be  over  65  deg.  Fahr.  The  image  will 
gradually  grow  denser,  as  development  proceeds,  until  fin- 
ally the  plate  is  nearly  black.  At  this  stage  it  should  be 
carefully  examined,  to  observe  the  strength  of  the  devel- 
opment. 

123.  Definition  of  a  Negative. — The  action  that  is  tak- 
ing place  on  the  plate  during  development  is  as  follows: 
The  light  that  passes  through  the  lens  affects  the  plate  in 
proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  rays  from  the  object;  con- 
sequently, the  rays  of  light  from  the  shadow  parts  of  the 
object  will  have  less  action  on  the  plate  than  the  rays  of 
light  from  the  lighter  parts.  During  development,  the  parts 
of  the  plate  most  affected  by  the  light  appear  first,  and  will 
grow  darker  as  development  proceeds,  while  the  parts 
affected  by  the  shadow  rays  will  show  but  slight  discolor- 
ation on  the  plate.  This  is  why  the  plate  is  called  a  nega- 
tive, because  it  gives  the  lights  and  shadows  in  reverse 
order  to  what  is  actually  seen  in  the  object. 

124.  Judging  Development.  —  Carefully  remove  the 
plate — handling  it  by  the  edges  only — from  the  tray  and 
hold  it  up  to  the  ruby  light,  looking  through  it.  If  the  highest 
points  of  light,  or  more  clearly  speaking,  the  blackest  parts 
of  the  image,  are  extremely  dense,  so  that  you  can  scarcely 
see  through  them,  then  the  development  has  been  carried 
far  enough.  When  those  parts  of  the  sensitive  film  on  the 
plate — emulsion — which  have  been  affected  most  by  the 
light  have  been  reduced  completely  to  metallic  silver, 
through  the  process  of  development,  it  is  impossible  to 
carry    them    any    further.      Continued    development    will 


How  to  Proceed  91 

simply  reduce  the  more  delicate  tones,  making  them  as 
dense  as  the  highest  points  of  light,  thus  causing  what  is 
usually  termed  a  spreading  of  light,  and  when  a  print  is 
made  from  such  a  negative  the  high-lights  are  hard  and 
chalky,  instead  of  being  soft  and  mellow. 

125.  Fixing.— After  development,  the  plate  should  be 
thoroughly  rinsed  in  clear  water;  then  place  it  in  the  hypo 
fixing  bath,  film  side  up,  where  it  should  remain  until  the 
unexposed  and  undeveloped  silver  salts  have  been  removed. 
In  other  words,  all  the  white  that  appears  on  the  plate,  as 
seen  when  looking  at  the  back  of  it,  must  be  cleared  away. 
A  negative  should  not  be  examined,  except  by  ruby  light, 
until  it  is  thoroughly  fixed.  This  may  require  ten  minutes, 
or  longer,  and  in  order  to  assure  thorough  fixing  the  nega- 
tive should  remain  in  this  bath  double  the  length  of  time 
necessary  to  remove  the  white  effect,  or  unexposed  silver 
salts.  After  the  plate  is  fixed,  place  it  in  another  tray  for 
washing  (if  you  have  no  washing  box)  and  allow  the  water 
from  the  faucet  to  run  into  the  tray  gently,  so  as  not  to 
strike  the  face  of  the  negative.  An  ordinary  pail  or  basin 
may  be  used,  if  a  tray  or  washing-box  is  not  available. 
Washing  should  be  continued  for  at  least  twenty  minutes, 
and  then  the  negative  should  be  placed  on  a  rack  or  stood 
up  against  the  wall  to  dry. 

126.  Drying. — ^^Negatives  should  be  dried  in  a  well  ven- 
tilated room.  If  the  room  is  too  warm,  the  film  is  apt  to 
become  soft  and  the  negative  will  be  ruined.  Never  dry 
the  negative  in  the  sun  or  near  the  stove. 

127.  This  instruction  is  only  a  primary  one,  dealing 
with  prepared  chemicals,  and  has  been  made  as  simple  as 


92  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

possible,  giving  no  reasons,  as  these  features  will  be  fully 
explained  in  succeeding  instruction. 

128.  Proof  prints  should  be  made  of  your  experiments 
of  this  instruction,  and  all  data  pertaining  to  the  results 
secured  or  failures  met  with  noted  on  the  back  of  each  indi- 
vidual proof.  Each  of  these  should  then  be  numbered  and 
dated  in  the  order  made,  and  filed  for  future  reference  in 
your  letter  file  or  proof  book. 

Defective  Negatives  and  Their  Cause. 

129.  Illustration  No.  21  shows  a  case  of  blistering, 
caused  by  a  difference  in  the  temperature  between  the  de- 
veloper and  the  wash  water.  Blistering  is  also  caused  by 
the  wash  water,  as  it  comes  from  the  faucet, 
containing  a  considerable  amount  of  air,  which  being 
forced  under  the  film,  raised  it  on  the  spots  shown. 
The  solutions  and  wash  waters  must  always  be  kept 
at  a  uniform  temperature,  and  the  water  coming  from  a 
faucet  must  not  be  allowed  to  drive  on  the  plate.  Should 
the  water  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  air,  as  is  the 
case  where  water  is  pumped  into  the  mains,  or  sometimes 
when  breaks  in  the  water  mains  have  been  repaired  and  the 
water  again  turned  on,  forcing  air  into  the  pipes,  this  air 
or  gas  may  aflfect  the  film.  Under  such  conditions  it  would 
be  far  better  to  wash  the  plates  in  a  tray,  changing  the  water 
at  least  ten  times  during  a  period  of  one  hour.  The  water 
used  should  have  been  drawn  from  the  faucet  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  five  minutes  before  placing  it  in  contact  with 
the  plate. 


Illustration  No.  22 

Showing  the  Result  of  Fogging  the  Plate 

See  Paragraph  No.  130 


Illustration  No.  23 

Showing  the  Results  of  Uneven  Development 

See  Paragraph  No.  131 


How  to  Proceed.  95 

130.  Illustration  22  shows  the  result  of  fog  when  the 
plate  holder  is  not  properly  inserted  in  the  camera.  It  is 
absolutely  essential  that  the  holder  be  pushed  in  far  enough 
so  that  the  rib  or  gp*oove  on  the  camera  fits  snugly  into  the 
groove  or  rib  of  the  plate  holder.  If  they  do  not  fit  properly, 
fog  will  invariably  be  the  result.  This  fog  occurs  in  differ- 
ent forms,  but  the  one  illustrated  herewith  is  quite  common. 
Frequently  when  the  plate  holder  is  not  properly  inserted  in 
the  back  of  the  camera  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  plate  will 
also  be  fogged.  Improperly  inserting  the  slide  in  the  holder 
will  cause  a  similar  fog.  The  slide  must  never  be  inserted 
one  corner  first;  always  push  it  in  straight,  i.  e.,  the  end  of 
the  slide  must  enter  the  slot  evenly.  (See  Illustration 
No.  11). 

131.  Illustration  23  contains  numerous  defects,  but  the 
one  which  comes  to  our  attention  most  strongly  is  the  un- 
even development  shown  by  the  large,  light  streaks,  which 
were  caused  by  flowing  the  developer  over  only  a  portion 
of  the  plate  in  place  of  covering  it  entirely.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  developer  be  flowed  evenly  and 
uniformally  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  plate  at  once,  for 
if  this  is  not  done,  streaks  and  spots  will  result. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BEGINNERS'  DIFFICULTIES. 

132.  Unable  to  See  Image  in  the  Finder. — You  have  probably 
looked  into  the  finder  at  the  wrong  angle;  the  camera  was  pointed 
toward  the  sun;  or  direct  sunlight  fell  on  the  top  of  the  finder. 
Almost  all  finders  have  a  little  hood  that  must  be  raised  to  shield 
it  from  the  strong  sunlight.  You  will  be  able  to  see  in  the  finder 
a  clear  image  of  the  object  in  front  of  the  camera  by  shading  the 
top  of  the  finder  with  your  hand  (care  must  be  taken  that  your 
hand  does  not  cover  the  little  lens  in  the  front  of  the  finder)  and 
looking  straight  down  on  the  finder.  If  you  are  pointing  your 
camera  away  from  the  sun  there  is  very  little  danger  of  the  sun 
striking  the  finder,  and  you  will  have  no  trouble  in  seeing  the 
image. 

133.  Unable  to  See  Image  on  the  Ground-Glass. — You  have  not 
excluded  enough  white  light  with  the  focusing  cloth;  the  focusing 
cloth  may  be  too  thin;  perhaps  you  have  not  opened  the  shutter  so 
that  the  light  can  enter  the  camera;  the  diaphragm  in  the  shutter 
may  be  at  the  smallest  opening,  thus  not  admitting  very  much  light. 
Do  not  look  through  the  ground-glass.  To  view  the  image  on  the 
ground-glass  be  sure  that  the  lens  is  wide  open  (using  the  largest 
"stop"  or  diaphragm)  and  allow  no  light  to  strike  the  ground-glass 
with  the  exception  of  that  which  comes  through  the  lens.  If  you 
use  a  small  stop  the  image  will  be  much  more  indistinct  on  the 
ground-glass.  Do  not  try  to  look  through  the  ground-glass,  but 
look  on  it,  as  though  you  were  looking  at  a  mounted  picture.  A 
little  practice  will  readily  overcome  any  difficulty  you  may  experi- 
ence at  first  in  locating  the  image  on  the  ground-glass. 

134.  Cannot  Secure  a  Sharp  Image. — If  the  image  is  not  sharp, 
the  difficulty  lies  in  not  having  the  lens  at  the  correct  distance 
from  the  ground-glass  (dry  plate  or  film).     If  your  camera  has  a 

(97; 


98  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

ground-glass,  proceed  to  focus  as  previously  instructed,  and  rack 
the  bellows  backward  and  forward  until  the  image  is  sharp,  then 
lock  the  lens  support  in  position. 

135.  Image  Not  Sharp  When  the  Camera  Is  Used  as  a  Hand 
Camera  and  Set  at  the  Correct  Distamce  Indicated  by  the  Scale. — If 
the  pointer  registers  at  the  proper  figure  on  the  scale  indicator,  and 
the  image  secured  on  the  developed  negative  is  indistinct — ^blurred — 
the  trouble  lies  in  the  scale  of  distance  not  being  in  proper  loca- 
tion. For  method  of  corrections  see  paragraphs  Nos.  75  to  78  of  this 
instruction,  which  fully  explain  how  to  proceed  to  correct  the 
position  of  the  scale. 

136.  Distortion    of   Perpendicular   Lines   of   the   Picture. — In 

taking  a  picture  of  a  building,  and  especially  when  the  sides  of  the 
structure  come  near  the  edges  of  the  negative,  a  distortion  often 
occurs — the  outside  walls  of  the  building  being  in  the  shape  of  a 
pyramid.  This  is  caused  from  tilting  the  camera  upward,  which 
brings  the  lower  part  of  the  ground-glass  or  plate  nearer  to  the 
building  than  the  top  of  the  ground-glass  or  plate.  To  avoid  dis- 
tortion of  perpendicular  lines  of  a  building,  the  ground-glass  or  sen- 
sitive plate  must  always  be  absolutely  parallel  with  the  building  or 
perpendicular  to  the  ground.  If  possible,  and  especially  where  the 
building  photographed  is  very  tall,  it  is  advisable  to  both  raise  the 
lens  and  use  the  swing-back  or  swing-bed.  This  same  difficulty 
will  appear  should  you  point  the  camera  down,  although  the  pyra- 
mid effect  will  be  reversed  and  the  method  of  handling  and  correct- 
ing the  distortion  correspondingly  regulated. 

137.  Image  Very  Dim  and  Hazy  on  Ground-Glass. — (a)  Caused 
by  pointing  the  camera  toward  the  sun  and  allowing  the  sunlight 
to  either  come  into  the  lens  direct  or  to  fall  on  the  edge  of  the  lens 
tube  and  reflect  into  the  lens.  The  lens  is  the  eye  of  the  camera, 
and  is  affected  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  human  eye  in  this 
respect — everything  appears  hazy  and  dim  when  looking  toward 
the  sun. 

(b)  In  midwinter,  taking  the  lens  from  a  warm  room  into 
the  cold  causes  moisture  to  gather  on  the  lens  and  also  on  the 
ground-glass,  thus  hindering  the  rays  of  light  from  producing  a 


Beginners*  Difficulties.  99 

clear  image.  All  doublet  lenses,  and  especially  those  which  are 
mounted  very  close  together  (the  rectilinear  and  anastigmat  types) 
are  extremely  sensitive  to  temperature.  When  the  moisture  gathers 
and  dries  it  leaves  a  slight  scum,  which  is  very  much  similar  to  that 
formed  on  windows  which  have  been  steamed.  This  scum  will,  in 
time,  affect  the  working  of  the  lens,  producing  hazy  effects.  A  very 
SOFT  cloth  should  be  used  to  wipe  off  the  lens,  but  the  greatest  of 
care  must  be  exercised  not  to  scratch  it.  The  fingers  should  never 
be  placed  in  contact  with  the  lens.  Only  in  extreme  cases  of  neces- 
sity should  the  lens  combination  be  taken  apart.  This  can  be  done 
when  you  consider  it  advisable,  but  be  sure  to  return  each  individual 
lens  to  its  proper  cell.  If  after  breathing  on  the  lens  and  wiping  it 
with  the  soft  cloth,  you  are  unable  to  remove  the  scummy  appear- 
ance, moisten  the  cloth  with  alcohol  and  apply  it  lightly,  then  wipe 
dry  with  another  portion  of  the  same  cloth. 

138.  Extreme  Distance  Not  Sharp. — The  hazy  appearance  of 
the  extreme  distance  on  the  ground-glass  is  caused  by  the  lens  not 
having  been  set  at  the  point  of  universal  focus,  or  point  of  infinity 
as  it  is  sometimes  called.  (See  Paragraph  71.)  The  remedy  is 
either  to  set  the  lens  on  the  100  foot  mark  on  the  scale,  or  to  rack 
the  bellows  in  until  the  image  appears  sharp.  Greater  depth,  i.  e., 
greater  clearness  or  sharpness  of  the  image,  between  a  certain  near 
and  distant  point,  can  be  obtained  by  stopping  down  the  lens, 
remembering  always  that  the  more  you  stop  down  the  sharper  will 
be  the  picture,  the  greater  the  depth,  but  also  the  longer  the 
exposure  that  will  be  required. 

139.  Foreground  Not  Shajrp. — If  you  are  photographing  a  view 
or  scene  that  has  objects  in  it  situated  at  varying  distances — say 
from  10  to  over  100  ft.,  and  having  first  secured  a  sharp  focus  of 
the  object  at  50  ft.,  thus  dividing  the  focus  of  the  two  extremes, 
you  will  still  find  that  the  objects  nearer  to  you  than  50  ft.  and  100 
ft.  away  are  not  sharp  enough,  these  can  be  made  sharper  by  stop- 
ping down  the  lens.  If  you  do  not  care  anything  about  the  objects 
in  the  distance,  and  the  objects  in  the  foreground  are  the  important 
ones,  you  should  focus  on  the  most  important  object  or  objects  and 
then  stop  down  the  lens  only  enough  to  give  you  as  much  sharpness 


1 00  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

as  you  desire  in  the  distance.  A  strong  effect  of  atmosphere  or  dis- 
tance, which  is  very  artistic,  is  secured  by  allowing  the  distance  to 
remain  slightly  diffused,  or  out  of  focus. 

140.  Obtaining  Sufficient  Angle  of  View  in  Narrow  Streets. — 

If  the  street  is  a  narrow  one  and  you  are  using  a  rectilinear  lens — 
the  majority  of  view  outfits  are  fitted  with  these  lenses — it  will  be 
impossible  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  You  can,  however,  procure 
a  lens  attachment  for  shortening  the  focus  of  the  lens  and  give  a 
wider  angle,  or  you  can  purchase  a  regular  wide-angle  lens.  By 
placing  the  attachment  on  your  regular  lens  the  size  of  the  image 
will  be  reduced  and  the  view  can  be  obtained  on  the  plate  without 
any  crowding. 

141.  Too  Much  Foreground. — This  is  usually  caused  by  the 
camera  being  tilted  downward  in  place  of  being  level.  If  the 
camera  is  level,  and  yet  too  much  foreground  is  seen,  this  difficulty 
can  be  readily  overcome  by  the  use  of  the  rising  front  to  which 
the  lens  is  attached.  By  raising  it  you  will  obtain  more  sky.  If 
the  camera  does  not  possess  the  rising  front,  extend  the  whole 
tripod  and  draw  the  legs  closer  together  thus  raising  the  camera. 

142.  Too  Much  Sky. — Camera  pointed  up  too  much.  By  drop- 
ping the  rising  front  more  foreground  can  be  secured,  hence  less 
sky;  or  the  whole  tripod  can  be  lowered  if  the  camera  does  not  pos- 
sess the  rising  and  falling  front. 

143.  Plates  Sticking  in  the  Holder. — This  will  happen  some- 
times when  using  new  plate  holders,  or  if  the  plate  is  a  little  large 
or  made  of  thick  glass.  The  latter  trouble  will  not  be  experienced 
if  high  grade  plates  are  used,  as  reliable  plates  are  coated  on  spe- 
cially prepared  glass  which  is  very  thin.  By  pushing  down  the 
spring  on  which  the  plate  rests  and  tapping  the  plate  holder  gently 
on  the  back,  the  plate  will  generally  fall  out.  Tapping  the  end  of 
the  holder,  containing  the  spring,  on  your  hand  or  the  edge  of  the 
table — at  the  same  time  tilting  the  open  side  of  the  holder  for- 
ward— will  cause  the  plate  to  drop  out  into  your  hand.  Practice 
this  latter  method — outside  of  the  dark-room — with  an  old  plate, 
until  you  understand  and  can  accomplish  the  removal  of  the  plate 
with  ease. 


Beginners  *  Difficulties,  1 0 1 

144.  Unable  to  Tell  Which  Is  the  Film  Side  of  the  Plate.— 
Plates  of  American  manufacture  are  always  packed  face  to  face,  the 
top  one  being  face  down.  The  face  or  film  side  has  a  dull  appear- 
ance when  viewed  by  reflected  light,  while  the  back  or  glass  side  is 
glossy.  Dampen  your  finger  and  place  it  on  the  extreme  corner  of 
the  plate — the  sticky  side  is  the  film  side.  CAUTION — Never 
touch  either  side  of  the  plate;  always  handle  it  by  the  edges. 

145.  Distinguishing  Exposed  and  Unexposed  Plates  When 
Mixed. — There  might  be  a  time  when  you  happen  to  place  exposed 
and  unexposed  plates  together,  or  you  might  fail  to  turn  the  slides 
properly  after  making  the  exposure,  and  thus  be  in  doubt  as  to 
which  of  the  plates  have  been  used.  Exposed  and  unexposed 
plates  have  the  same  appearance  to  the  eye  before  development. 
In  order  to  avoid  spoiling  all  plates  by  developing  them  in  trying 
to  ascertain  which  have  been  exposed,  dip  your  finger  in  the  pre- 
pared developing  solution  and  apply  it  to  the  corner  of  the  plate. 
If  within  a  minute's  time  there  should  be  no  darkening  of  this  por- 
tion, try  another  plate  in  the  same  way.  The  plates  affected  by 
the  developer  are,  of  course,  the  ones  exposed,  and  you  can  pro- 
ceed to  develop  them  as  usual,  replacing,  for  further  use,  those  not 
affected.  Judicious  application  of  the  developer  to  the  corner  of  the 
plate  will  not  spoil  the  plate — at  least,  this  method  is  a  much  better 
one  to  follow  than  to  develop  all  plates  in  order  to  find  the  right 
one  and  lose  the  unexposed  plates  altogether. 

146.  Weak  Ruby  Light. — Even  with  the  ruby  lamp  lighted, 
when  you  first  enter  the  dark-room  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in 
seeing,  and  you  might  think  that  you  have  not  enough  light.  It 
requires  very  little  light  to  work  by,  but  your  eyes  must  first 
become  accustomed  to  it.  Before  you  start  to  develop,  close  your 
dark-room  door  and  remain  for  a  few  minutes  until  you  become 
accustomed  to  the  semi-darkness.  When  you  are  ready  to  examine 
your  plate,  hold  it  up  close  to  your  ruby  light  and  look  through  it. 
After  a  little  experience  you  can  work  intelligently  with  the  dim 
light.  Care  should  be  taken  in  using  an  oil  lamp,  that  the  flame  is 
not  too  high,  as  it  will  smoke,  causing  unnecessary  heat  and  odor. 
Remember,  the  strongest  attribute  of  the  dry  plate  is  that  it  is 


1 02  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

affected  by  light;  therefore,  it  MUST  be  handled  in  the  least  amount 
of  light  possible. 

147.  Chemicals  Will  Not  Dissolve. — The  powders,  perhaps, 
have  not  been  mixed  with  the  water  in  proper  order,  or  the  water  is 
too  cold.  Always  dissolve  the  sodas  first — the  largest  package,  or 
the  larger  of  the  two  amounts  of  chemicals  in  the  tubes.  The  de- 
veloping agent  dissolves  very  readily,  but  you  should  stir  the  water 
rapidly  while  adding  it.  In  adding  the  soda,  do  not  pour  in  too 
much  at  one  time,  as  it  will  cake  and  become  hard,  when  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  dissolve  it.  Warm  water  will  break  up  the 
crystalline  formation  much  more  readily  than  cold  water,  and  will 
also  hold  in  solution  a  greater  quantity  of  the  chemical. 

148.  No  Image  Appears  Upon  Continued  Development.— The 
plate  is  badly  under-exposed  or  not  exposed  at  all.  In  the  latter 
case  you  may  have  forgotten  to  draw  the  slide,  or  your  shutter  did 
not  work.  Possibly  the  shutter  was  not  set,  if  it  is  one  that  needs 
setting  at  each  exposure.  While  making  the  exposure  the  focusing 
cloth  may  have  hung  over  the  lens. 

149.  Image  Flashes  Up  and  Quickly  Darkens  When  Flowed 
With  Developer. — If  the  plate  becomes  black  when  covered  with 
the  developer  it  has  been  extremely  over-exposed,  either  by  the 
shutter  not  closing  properly,  or  white  light,  other  than  that  which 
came  through  the  lens  at  the  time  of  exposure,  has  affected  it.  In 
other  words  the  plate  has  been  fogged.  If  the  edges  of  the  plate 
protected  from  the  light  by  the  edges  of  the  plate  holder  do  not  be- 
come dark,  the  trouble  is  over-exposure.  If  the  plate  holder  was 
not  placed  in  the  back  of  the  camera  properly,  the  plate  could  have 
fogged  and  the  edges  of  it  still  remain  clear  upon  development. 
Or,  if  the  shutter  on  your  lens  is  loose,  especially  on  box  or  film 
cameras,  and  you  happen  to  hold  the  camera  (even  if  you  are  not 
making  an  exposure)  so  that  the  sun  strikes  the  lens,  the  light  is 
admitted  and  causes  a  fog.  To  avoid  any  possibility  of  fog,  the 
greatest  care  should  be  exercised  at  every  stage  in  the  handling  of 
the  plate.  Be  sure  that  your  ruby  lamp  is  perfectly  safe.  See  that 
no  white  light  enters  into  the  dark-room  from  any  source  whatso- 
ever.   In  placing  the  plate  holder  in  the  camera,  see  that  it  is  per- 


Beginners  *  Difficulties.  1 03 

fectly  flush  with  the  back  of  the  camera.  (See  paragraph  No.  92.) 
Make  a  record  of  every  exposure,  and  if  the  plate  develops  up 
quickly  and  becomes  very  dark  almost  immediately — the  edges  of 
the  plate  remaining  clear — the  exposure  for  that  particular  plate 
was  too  much. 

150.  When  to  Stop  Development. — It  requires  considerable 
practice  to  become  expert  in  judging  when  a  negative  is  correctly 
developed.  Negatives  of  various  kinds  of  lightings  require  differ- 
ent treatment,  yet,  there  is  one  principle  that  holds  good  in  all 
cases.  The  development  must  be  carried  until  the  highest  point  of 
light  (the  darkest  point  in  the  negative)  is  perfectly  opaque  (black 
in  the  negative).  It  must  not  be  carried  further,  as  the  delicate 
half-tones,  almost  as  strong  as  the  highest  point  of  light,  will  then 
develop  down  and  become  just  as  dense  as  the  high-light — causing 
a  flat,  chalky  effect  in  the  finished  print.  The  highest  point  of  light 
must  be  developed  until  every  particle  of  silver  has  been  reduced — 
using  a  photographic  term  "Develop  until  the  highest  point  of 
light  is  through  to  the  glass,  but  stop  there,  as  you  cannot  drive 
it  into  the  glass." 

151.  Judging  Density  .^Fixing  the  plate  reduces  its  density  to 
quite  an  extent — the  amount  depending  on  the  thickness  of  the 
emulsion,  which  varies  in  different  makes  and  brands  of  plates. 
There  are  numerous  methods  employed  by  photographers  to  judge 
density.  We  recommend  the  beginner  to  hold  the  plate  before  the 
ruby  light  and  place  one  finger  close  to  the  film  near  the  strongest 
high-light.  When  this  highest  light  in  the  negative  is  as  dense  as 
the  shadow  cast  by  the  finger,  you  can  consider  the  plate  developed 
to  the  proper  strength.  When  you  think  development  has  been 
carried  far  enough  try  to  fix  in  your  mind  how  the  plate  appears; 
notice  especially  the  density  and  its  comparison  with  the  deepest 
shadows.  After  "fixing,"  examine  the  negative  in  daylight,  by  look- 
ing through  it.  If  the  highest  point  of  light  is  practically  opaque, 
the  development  has  been  correct.  If  the  high-light  is  thin,  the 
negative  is  under-developed,  while  if  the  high-light  is  dense  and 
covers  quite  a  little  space,  it  is  over-developed.  Make  a  close  study 
of  each  negative  and  govern  yourself  accordingly  in  developing  the 


1 04  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

next  plate.     By  this  practice  you  will  soon  learn  to  secure  proper 
density  in  your  negatives  under  all  conditions. 

152.  Pin-Holes  and  Spots. — There  are  endless  ways  in  which 
pin-holes  and  spots  are  produced  on  the  negative.  The  best  way 
to  avoid  trouble  from  this  source  is  to  be  clean  in  all  operations. 
Your  dark-room,  graduates  and  trays  should  be  kept  clean.  Your 
camera  and  plate  holders  should  be  dusted  occasionally.  The  fixing 
solution  should  be  filtered,  after  considerable  use,  to  free  it  from 
any  sediment.  Each  plate  must  be  carefully  dusted  before  placing 
it  in  the  holder  and  before  development.  The  small  round  spots 
which  are  nearly  transparent  and  have  dark,  defined  edges  are 
caused  by  air-bells  adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  plate  when  the 
developing  solution  is  first  applied,  the  air-bells  preventing  the 
developing  solution  from  acting  upon  the  emulsion.  Having  the 
developer  in  the  tray  and  dropping  the  exposed  plate  into  the  de- 
veloper, without  sufficiently  agitating  the  solution,  will  almost  al- 
ways cause  air-bells  and  leave  the  small  transparent  spots.  Have 
the  developing  solution  in  a  graduate  and  place  the  exposed  plate 
in  a  dry  tray,  then  flow  the  plate  with  an  even  sweep  of  developer 
from  the  graduate.  This  method  of  application  will  drive  off  all 
air  from  the  plate  and  allow  of  an  even  and  uniform  action  of  the 
developer.  Air-bells  can  also  be  removed  by  gently  passing  a  tuft 
of  absorbent  cotton,  thoroughly  saturated  with  developer,  over  the 
surface  of  the  plate  immediately  after  the  plate  is  flowed  with  the 
developer. 

153.  Judging  When  a  Plate  Is  Fixed.— A  plate  is  not  "fixed" 
until  the  white,  milky  appearance  disappears  from  the  back  and  the 
plate  has  remained  in  the  hypo  bath  as  long  again  as  it  has  taken 
to  remove  the  white  effect.  Under  proper  condition,  a  plate  should 
remain  in  a  correctly  prepared  bath  for  at  least  fifteen  minutes, 
or  even  an  hour  will  do  no  harm.  But  if  left  in  an  old  bath,  at  a 
moderately  high  temperature,  too  long,  the  image  on  the  negative 
will  be  reduced. 

154.  Edges  of  Negative  Fogged. — If,  after  development,  the 
extreme  edges  of  the  negative  are  dark  and  fogged,  the  plates  are 
old.    Buy  only  plates  that  are  guaranteed  to  be  fresh,  and  use  the 


Beginners*  Difficulties,  1 05 

best  brands  only.     The  slight  additional  cost  is  made  up  in  the 
saving  of  wasted  material  and  in  securing  satisfactory  results. 

155.  End  or  Corner  of  Negative  Fogged. — If  dark,  angular 
streaks  cross  the  negative  from  the  end,  the  slide  of  the  holder  was 
not  removed  or  not  inserted  properly.  (See  paragraph  No.  93, 
also.  Illustrations  No.  11  and  No.  12.)  Should  fog  appear  at  the 
corners  of  the  negative  the  trouble  is  with  the  box  containing  the 
plates.  If  carelessly  handled  the  corners  of  the  box  will  break 
open  enough  to  admit  a  little  white  light,  resulting  in  fog  and 
light  streaks  across  the  corner  of  the  developed  negative. 

156.  Shadows  Fogged. — The  negative  has  been  over-exposed. 
Use  less  exposure  in  making  future  negatives  under  same  condi- 
tions. 

157.  Large  Light  Spots  and  Streaks  on  Negative. — These  are 
caused  by  one  of  two  things:  either  the  plate  was  not  evenly  cov- 
ered with  the  developer  when  it  was  first  poured  on,  or  the  plate 
was  placed  in  the  tray  face  (film  side)  down.  The  parts  of  the 
plate  that  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  developer  when  first 
poured  on  will  not  develop  up  as  strong  as  the  balance  of  the  nega- 
tive, no  matter  how  long  you  leave  the  plate  in  the  solution — un- 
even development  is  sure  to  show.  Insufficient  amount  of  solution 
will  also  cause  uneven  development.  (See  paragraph  131,  and  Illus- 
tration No.  23.) 

158.  Large  Black  Spot  in  Center  of  Plate. — Pointing  the  lens 
of  the  camera  toward  the  sun  will,  in  most  cases,  cause  reflection, 
resulting  in  a  bright  spot  in  the  center  of  the  ground-glass  and 
producing  a  black  spot  on  the  center  of  the  negative.  The  higher 
types  of  lenses  will  not  produce  this  spot  to  any  great  extent. 
When  it  does  occur  it  is  due  to  a  defect  in  the  lens,  termed  "flare." 
For  beginners  it  is  always  best  to  follow  the  rule,  "Never  point  the 
camera  toward  the  sun,"  no  matter  what  kind  of  a  lens  you  are 
using. 

159.  Back  of  Negative  White  When  Removed  from  Fixing 
Bath. — Plate  was  removed  from  the  fixing  bath  too  soon,  not  being 
allowed  enough  time  for  the  removal  of  the  unacted-upon  silver 
salts.    The  milky  appearance  must  be  entirely  removed.    For  proper 


106  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

fixing,  however,  the  negative  should  remain  in  the  hypo  bath  just 
twice  as  long  as  is  necessary  for  the  white  appearance  to  disappear. 
Thus,  if  the  white  effect  is  entirely  removed  in  ten  minutes  the 
negative  should  remain  in  the  fixing  bath  for  twenty  minutes. 

i6o.  Negative  Will  Not  Fix. — Caused  by  a  hypo  bath  being 
extremely  weak  or  too  cold.  A  weak  hypo  bath,  of  course,  is  not 
strong  enough  to  act  upon  the  unused  silver  salts  in  the  negative; 
while  too  cold  a  bath  not  being  able  to  hold  a  great  quantity  of 
chemicals  in  solution,  will  not  fix  the  negative,  because  in  fixing  it 
is  necessary  to  dissolve  the  unused  silver  out  of  the  emulsion  and  it 
is  obviously  necessary  that  there  should  be  room  in  the  hypo  bath 
to  hold  this  silver.  One  ounce  of  crystal  hypo  to  four  ounces  of 
water  is  the  correct  proportion  for  the  PLAIN  hypo  bath.  The 
hydrometer  test  for  making  a  PLAIN  hypo  bath  is  70  degrees. 
Follow  the  formula  in  making  the  ACID  hypo  bath. 

161.  Fixing  Bath  Discolors  After  Slight  Use. — This  is  due 
to  your  failure  to  rinse  the  negative  carefully  after  removing  it 
from  the  developing  solution,  as  the  developer  that  is  carried  into 
the  "fixing"  bath  soon  oxidizes  and  turns  the  whole  bath  dark. 
Ordinarily,  with  a  fresh  bath  this  will  not  harm,  but  if  it  is  allowed 
to  become  old  the  negatives  will  be  apt  to  stain  when  fixed  in 
such  a  bath.  A  PLAIN  hypo  bath  discolors  more  readily  than  an 
ACID  bath.  The  hypo  is  good  as  long  as  it  will  fix  and  leave  no 
scum  or  stain  on  the  plate.  If  you  have  no  regular  fixing  box  keep 
your  hypo  solution  in  a  bottle  and  in  a  dark,  cool  place,  and  pour 
it  in  the  tray  only  when  you  are  ready  to  use  it.  Never  keep  your 
hypo  or  developer  in  a  metal  pail  or  can,  as  the  metal  would  pro- 
duce a  chemical  action  which  would  result  in  the  spoiling  of  your 
bath.  If  a  scum  forms  on  the  surface  of  the  bath,  remove  it  before 
placing  a  negative  in  to  fix.  If  allowed  to  remain  on  the  bath  the 
scum  will  adhere  to  the  back  of  the  negative,  and  when  dry  is  very 
difficult  to  remove. 

162.  Softening  of  Film  in  Wash  Water. — ^This  will  occur  if 
your  developer,  hypo  or  wash  water  is  too  warm.  Prepare  a  weak 
solution  of  powdered  alum,  say  one-half  ounce  of  alum  in  10 
ounces  of  water,  and  place  your  plate  in  this  alum  solution  imme- 


Beginners*  Difficulties,  1 07 

diately  after  fixing,  previously  rinsing  for  a  few  moments.    This 
alum  will  harden  the  film. 

163.  Negatives  Dry  Slowly.— The  room  is  either  too  cold  or 
poorly  ventilated.  Ordinarily  it  takes  a  negative  from  four  to  six 
hours  to  dry.  With  good  ventilation  and  a  temperature  of  70  deg. 
to  (not  over)  85  deg.  Fahr.,  the  ordinary  coated  plate  will  dry 
easily  in  three  hours*  time.  Do  not  dry  by  excessive  heat;  if  the 
temperature  is  much  over  90  deg,  Fahr.,  the  emulsion  will  become 
soft  and  run  off  the  glass  or  celluloid  film,  ruining  the  negative. 

164.  Negatives  Appear  Greasy  When  Dry. — Lack  of  washing 
after  fixing.  This  difficulty  will  not  occur  if  fresh  hypo  solution 
is  used  and  the  negative  is  washed  for  the  proper  length  of  time 
(one  hour  in  running  water  or  in  ten  changes  of  water  for  the  same 
length  of  time).  The  scum  mentioned  under  the  former  DIFFI- 
CULTY, "Fixing  Bath  Discolors  After  Slight  Use,"  is  the  cause 
of  the  greasy  appearance  on  the  dried  negative. 

165.  Negatives  Appear  Gritty  When  Dry  (Dirty). — Caused  by 
sediment  in  the  wash  water.  Before  placing  the  negative  in  the 
drying  rack,  wipe  both  sides  of  the  negative  carefully  with  a  tuft 
of  absorbent  cotton  thoroughly  saturated  with  water.  If  you  are 
using  a  washing  box,  clean  it  just  before  you  are  ready  to  wash  the 
negatives.  Sometimes  negatives  will  collect  dust  and  dirt  while 
drying.  This  is  caused  by  using  dusty  drying  racks,  or,  if  no 
racks  are  used,  by  placing  the  negatives  on  a  dusty  table  or  other 
support.  Always  lay  a  clean  sheet  of  paper,  or  blotter,  under  the 
negatives  while  drying. 


CHAPTER  V. 
Kodaks  and  Films. 

166.  This  section  is  devoted  to  Kodak  and  Film 
Photography,  including  the  manipulation  of  kodak  or  other 
film  cameras  and  the  handling  and  developing  of  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  films,  i.  e.,  Eastman  N.-C,  Ansco,  Lumiere, 
Ensign,  etc.,  Kodoid  Plates  and  the  Film  Pack. 

167.  The  chemical  manipulation  of  all  transparent 
films  is  the  same ;  but  as  they  are  put  up  in  different  ways, 
the  preparation  and  method  of  handling  in  development 
differs  to  a  certain  extent.  Instruction  for  loading  the 
kodak  or  camera  always  accompanies  the  instrument ;  there- 
fore, we  will  not  dwell  at  length  upon  the  preliminary 
operations.  At  the  present  time  the  old  "Regular"  Roll 
Film  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  the  general  instruction  given 
here  will  apply  directly  to  the  various  "non-curling"  films 
which  are  in  general  use. 

168.  With  the  exception  of  loading,  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  the  film  kodak  or  camera  are  identical  with  the 
glass  plate  instruments,  and,  therefore,  the  previous  chap- 
ters are  applicable,  and  should  be  read  by  the  student  who 
enters  his  photographic  career  with  a  kodak  or  other  film 
camera.  Also  read  the  booklet  which  comes  with  the  kodak 
or  film  camera.  Make  yourself  perfectly  familiar  with  the 
instrument,  taking  special  care  to  learn  how  the  shutter 
works,  and  if  it  is  a  folding  kodak  apply  the  rack  and  pinion 

109 


1 1 0  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

for  focusing.  Note  the  use  of  the  focusing  scale,  the  rising 
front,  etc.  Before  threading  up  the  film,  work  the  shutter 
for  both  time  and  instantaneous  exposures.  The  first  thing 
for  the  beginner  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  the  light  which 
serves  to  impress  the  photographic  image  upon  the  sensi- 
tive film  in  a  fraction  of  a  second,  as  it  comes  through  the 
lens,  can  also  spoil  the  film  as  quickly  as  it  takes  the  picture. 
The  film  must  not  be  exposed  to  white  light  of  any  kind — 
gas,  oil,  candle,  electric,  etc., — until  it  has  been  developed 
and  washed,  or  it  will  be  ruined.  Therefore,  care  must  be 
exercised  throughout  all  operations  of  loading  and  unload- 
ing, to  keep  the  black  paper  wound  tightly  around  the  film 
to  prevent  admission  of  light. 

169.  Non-Curling  Film. — In  the  non-curling  film  the 
tendency  to  curl  is  overcome  by  a  process  explained  below — 
hence  the  name  non-curling.  This  film  is  usually  also  ortho- 
chromatic,  reproducing  practically  perfect  color-values.  It 
is  free  from  electrical  markings,  possesses  great  latitude  in 
exposure,  and  is  not  subject  to  halation,  due  to  the  thinness 
of  the  support  and  the  close  proximity  of  the  protective  black 
backing.  A  marked  advantage  of  the  non-curling  film  is  its 
great  speed,  which  means  much  to  the  worker  on  dull, 
smoky  days. 

170.  The  curling  of  the  film  is  overcome  by  coating 
both  sides  of  the  celluloid  with  gelatin;  therefore  greater 
care  must  be  exercised  in  the  handling,  and  neither  side 
must  come  in  contact  with  anything  while  drying.  (See 
Paragraph  209  regarding  drying.) 

171.  As  these  films  are  very  rapid  and  orthochromatic 
they  should  be  handled  carefully  in  the  dark-room  by  the 


Kodaks  and  Films.  1 1 3 

ruby  light.  The  light  should  not  be  too  strong — film  being 
susceptible  to  color  rays.  If  the  ruby  light  is  too  strong, 
even  though  of  the  correct  color,  it  will  fog  the  film.  We 
advise  developing  as  far  away  from  the  ruby  light  as  pos- 
sible. A  safe  precaution  would  be  to  place  an  extra  piece 
of  yellow  post  office  paper  over  the  ruby  light.  This  paper 
can  be  obtained  from  any  photographic  supply  dealer. 

172.  Non-curling  films,  being  gelatin  coated  on  both 
sides,  must  be  fixed  in  an  acid  fixing  bath,  or  else  be  im- 
mersed in  an  alum  bath  after  fixing.     (See  Paragraph  205.) 

173.  Daylight  Loading  Films. — Daylight  loading  spool 
films,  as  the  name  implies,  can  be  loaded  into  the  camera 
in  daylight.  The  operation  should  be  carried  on  in  subdued 
light,  and  not  in  bright  sunlight,  however.  Spool  films  are 
made  in  all  sizes  to  fit  all  sizes  of  cameras,  and  are  of  vary- 
ing lengths,  providing  sufficient  film  for  four  exposures 
(called  double  two  exposures),  six  exposures  and  twelve 
exposures,  except  with  certain  kinds  of  cameras,  such  as 
the  Panoram,  with  which  the  number  of  exposures  to  the 
spool  is  not  so  great.  At  the  back  or  side  of  your  film 
camera  are  receptacles  for  the  spool  of  film,  and  an  empty 
spool  on  which  to  wind  the  film.  The  blank  spool  should 
be  set  in  the  space  or  receptacle  that  is  regulated  by  the 
winding  key  on  the  outside  of  the  kodak.  Now,  break  the 
gummed  slip  that  holds  down  the  end  of  the  black  paper  on 
the  spool  containing  the  unexposed  film,  and  insert  this 
spool  in  the  other  receptacle. 

174.  In  most  of  the  box  type  of  kodaks,  the  end  of  the 
black  paper  is  next  passed  across  the  opening  in  the  back  of 
the  roll  holder  and  under  the  pasteboard  flap,  and  threaded 


1 14  Library^  of  Practical  Photography. 

through  the  slit  in  the  empty  reel.  Be  careful  to  have  the 
paper  draw  straight  and  true,  then  give  the  spool  two  or  three 
forward  turns  (to  the  left  from  the  key  end).  With  the  fold- 
ing types  of  kodaks  simply  draw  the  end  of  the  black  paper 
across  the  back  of  the  camera  and  insert  it  in  the  blank  spool. 

175.  Important. — Be  sure  that  the  paper  rolls  from  the 
outer  side  of  the  spool.  Since  each  spool  is  marked  "top" 
on  one  end,  when  inserting  look  for  the  mark  and  be  guided 
accordingly.  Should  you  insert  the  film  spool  wrong,  the 
black  paper  backing  would  come  between  the  film  and  the 
lens,  thereby  making  the  exposure  upon  the  paper  in  place 
of  the  film,  and  when  removing  from  the  camera  the  film 
not  being  protected  by  the  paper,  the  result  will  be  a  com- 
plete loss  of  the  roll  of  film.  The  winding  spool  has  a  slot 
in  one  end,  into  which  fits  the  flange  of  the  winding  key. 

176.  CAUTION.  If  you  reel  off  too  much  of  the 
black  paper,  before  the  camera  is  closed,  the  film  will  be  un- 
covered and,  of  course,  ruined.  Be  sure  your  camera  is 
closed  perfectly  before  unwinding  the  film. 

177.  After  the  kodak  is  closed,  turn  the  key  to  the  left, 
until  the  number  1  appears  before  the  little  red  window  in 
the  back  of  the  camera.  The  film  is  now  in  position  for 
taking  the  first  picture. 

178.  Double-two  Film. — We  recommend  what  is 
known  as  the  "double-two"  films,  as  they  are  more  conven- 
ient for  your  experiments.  If  you  were  to  employ  the  six 
or  twelve  exposure  films,  there  would  be  a  loss  of  film  as 
well  as  of  time.  This  double-two  film  is  for  four  exposures, 
and  is  so  arranged  that,  after  two  exposures  have  been  made, 
you  can  cut  off  the  exposed  film  without  any  danger  of 


Kodaks  and  Films.  1 1 5 

fogging  the  two  remaining  ones.  This  is  done  by  turning 
the  black  paper,  which  separates  exposures  1  and  2  from  3 
and  4,  until  the  letter  S  (indicating  Stop)  appears  at  the 
little  red  window,  which  indicates  the  number  of  the  ex- 
posure. 

179.  Now  open  your  camera  and  cut  the  black  paper 
where  it  is  marked  "cut  here."  Then  insert  the  empty  spool, 
saved  from  former  exposed  rolls,  in  place  of  the  spool  just 
removed.  Attach  the  end  of  the  black  paper  to  this  spool 
and  proceed  to  load  your  kodak  in  the  same  manner  as  at 
first.  Attach  the  end  of  the  paper  to  the  spool,  close  the 
camera  and  wind  the  film,  until  No.  3  shows,  when  you  are 
ready  for  the  third  exposure.  After  you  have  made  exposure 
No.  4,  and  previous  to  opening  the  camera  to  remove  the 
film,  be  sure  to  wind  the  strip  of  black  paper  around  the 
film.  Wind  until  you  hear  the  click  of  the  paper  being  re- 
leased from  the  other  spool.  If  you  cannot  secure  the 
"double-two"  films,  get  the  six  exposure  films.  They  can 
be  obtained  from  any  dealer  in  photographic  supplies. 

180.  Instantaneous  Exposures. — (Snap-shots.)  Most 
of  the  box  types  of  kodaks  have  shutters  which  are  always 
set  and  are  operated  by  pushing  the  lever  alternately  to 
right  or  left  with  the  thumb.  If  the  spring  is  pushed  the 
wrong  way,  the  shutter  remains  unmoved,  and  no  "click" 
is  heard.  This,  of  course,  means  that  the  lever  should  be 
pushed  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  manipulation  of  other 
shutters  is  clearly  defined  in  paragraphs  53  to  56  of 
Chapter  II. 

181.  To  take  instantaneous  pictures  with  box  kodaks 
and  the  cheaper  forms  of  folding  kodaks,  the  object  you  are 
photographing  should  be  in  strong  sunlight,  but  the  camera 


1 1 6  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

should  never  be  pointed  toward  the  sun,  which  should  faU 
from  the  back  or  over  the  shoulder  of  the  operator. 

182.  "Snap-shots"  are  made  with  the  largest  stop.  If 
a  smaller  stop  or  opening  is  used,  the  volume  of  light  is  so 
much  reduced  that  it  will  not  sufficiently  impress  the  image 
on  the  sensitive  emulsion  of  the  film,  and  failure  results. 
For  the  use  of  stops  see  paragraph  60  of  Chapter  II. 

183.  Time  exposures  should  not  be  made  unless  you 
place  the  kodak  on  something  solid,  as  the  slightest  jar  will 
cause  a  blur,  or  at  least,  an  indistinct  image.  Therefore,  it 
must  rest  on  some  firm  support  during  the  exposure.  A 
regular  tripod  is  the  best,  as  you  can  adjust  it  to  any  height. 
Whether  making  instantaneous  or  time  exposures,  have  the 
instrument  perfectly  level.  In  making  interior  pictures,  give 
time  exposures  and  never  point  the  lens  toward  a  window.  If 
all  of  the  windows  cannot  be  excluded,  pull  down  the  shades 
of  such  as  come  into  view  of  the  camera. 

184.  Interior  Exposures. — The  exposure  necessary  for 
interiors  varies  according  to  the  light  conditions  and  sur- 
roundings. By  consulting  the  table  below,  you  will  be  able 
to  judge  very  closely  the  exposure  necessary.  This  table 
is  for  the  largest  stop.  If  the  kodak  is  of  the  box  type, 
with  three  different  openings,  use  the  middle  sized  stop  to 
obtain  more  sharpness,  and  double  the  time.  When  the 
smallest  stop  is  used,  give  four  times  the  exposure  you 
would  give  with  the  largest  opening. 

EXPOSURE  TABLE. 

185.  White  walls  and  more  than  one  window: 

Bright  sunlight  outside,  2  seconds;  hazy  sun,  s  sec- 
onds; cloudy  bright,  lo  seconds;  cloudy  dull,  20  sec- 
onds. 


Kodaks  and  Films.  1 1 7 

186.  White  walls  and  only  one  window: 

Bright  sun  outside,  3  seconds;  hazy  sun,  8  seconds; 
cloudy  bright,  15  seconds;    cloudy  dull,  30  seconds. 

187.  Medium  colored  walls  and  hangings,  and  more 

than  one  window : 

Bright  sun  outside,  4  seconds;  hazy  sun,  10  seconds; 
cloudy  bright,  20  seconds;    cloudy  dull,  40  seconds. 

188.  Medium  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  only  one 

window : 

Bright  sun  outside,  6  seconds;  hazy  sun,  15  seconds; 
cloudy  bright,  30  seconds;    cloudy  dull,  60  seconds. 

189.  Dark  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  more  than 

one  window : 

Bright  sun  outside,  10  seconds;  hazy  sun,  20  seconds; 
cloudy  bright,  40  seconds;  cloudy  dull,  i  minute  and 
20  seconds. 

190.  Dark  colored  walls  and  hangings  and  only  one 

window : 

Bright  sun  outside,  20  seconds;  hazy  sun,  40  seconds; 
cloudy  bright,  1  minute,  20  seconds;  cloudy  dull,  2 
minutes,  40  seconds. 

191.  This  table  is  intended  for  rooms  with  windows 
receiving  the  direct  light  from  the  sky,  and  for  the  hours 
from  three  hours  after  sunrise  until  three  hours  before 
sunset.    If  earlier  or  later  the  time  required  will  be  longer. 

192.  Exterior  Exposures. — When  the  size  of  the  dia- 
phragm of  the  lens  is  reduced  to,  say,  about  half,  the  light 
admitted  through  a  lens  is  so  much  reduced  that  even  out 
of  doors  a  time  exposure  may  be  made  just  the  same  as  for 
interior  pictures ;  but  as  the  light  out  doors  is  much  stronger 
the  time  exposure  must  be  correspondingly  shorter.  With 
sunshine  the  shutter  can  hardly  be  opened  and  closed  quick- 
ly enough  to  avoid  over-exposure.    With  light  clouds,  from 


1 18  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

one-half  to  one  second  will  be  enough.  With  heavy  clouds, 
from  two  to  five  seconds  exposure  will  be  required.  This 
is  calculated  for  the  time  from  three  hours  after  sunrise 
until  three  hours  before  sunset,  and  for  objects  in  the  open 
light.  For  other  times,  or  for  objects  in  shadow,  under 
porches  or  trees,  no  accurate  directions  can  be  given;  in 
fact,  experience  only  can  teach  you  to  give  the  proper  ex- 
posure. Remember,  that  time  exposures  cannot  be  made 
while  the  camera  is  held  in  the  hand.  Always  place  it  on 
some  firm  support — tripod  preferred. 

Practice  Work. 

193.  In  order  to  become  familiar  with  the  proper  tim- 
ing under  all  strengths  of  light,  take  your  camera  and  load 
it  with  a  double-two  film.  Select  a  sunshiny  day,  and  a 
street  that  has  bright  sunlight  on  one  side  and  shade  on  the 
other.  Step  into  the  middle  of  the  street  and  photograph 
the  view  which  is  in  bright  sunlight,  setting  the  speed  of 
the  shutter  at  ^5,  or  if  your  camera  is  not  equipped  with  a 
shutter  of  different  speeds,  use  the  instantaneous  attach- 
ment, adjusting  the  view  on  the  finder  so  that  the  far  end 
of  the  street  will  show  in  the  picture.  Then  make  the  ex- 
posure, after  which  turn  off  the  exposed  film  until  number 
2  appears.  Make  another  exposure  identical  with  the  first. 
Then  wind  off  this  exposure  until  number  3  appears,  which 
means  quite  a  number  of  turns  (if  a  double-two  film  has  been 
used),  as  a  long  strip  of  black  paper  separates  number  2 
from  number  3. 

194.  If  you  have  not  used  a  tripod  or  some  solid  sup- 
port for  the  kodak  in  making  the  first  two  exposures,  do  so 


Kodaks  and  Films.  1 1 9 

for  the  remaining  two  exposures,  as  one  of  these  is  to 
be  a  time  exposure,  and  it  is  impossible  to  hold  the  camera 
steady  even  for  one  second.  Now,  without  changing  your 
original  location,  point  the  camera  toward  the  shady  side 
of  the  street  and  make  another  exposure,  giving  the  same 
"snap-shot"  time  as  you  did  on  1  and  2,  after  which  wind 
up  the  exposed  film  until  number  4  appears.  Then  set  your 
shutter  so  as  to  make  an  exposure  of  one-half  second,  or  if 
your  camera  is  not  equipped  with  a  shutter  that  can  be  set 
at  the  different  speeds,  set  it  for  time  exposure,  indicated 
on  the  dial  by  T. 

195.  When  the  shutter  is  set  for  a  time  exposure,  you 
will  have  to  press  the  bulb  or  button,  or  push  the  lever  twice 
(depending  on  the  kind  of  shutter  you  have).  The  first 
pressure  opens  the  shutter  and  exposes  the  film ;  the  second 
pressure  closes  the  shutter.  If  you  open  and  close  the  shut- 
ter as  quickly  as  possible  (without  jarring  the  camera),  you 
will  secure  an  exposure  of  about  one-half  second.  In  mak- 
ing time  exposures,  do  not  move  the  camera  in  the  least,  for 
in  so  doing  you  blur  the  image  on  the  film.  After  making 
the  fourth  exposure,  remove  the  film  as  previously  directed. 
Three  of  these  exposures  are  properly  timed ;  numbers  1  and 
2  in  strong  sunlight  and  number  4  of  the  shady  side  of  the 
street,  to  which  you  gave  one-half  second  exposure.  This 
one-half  second  exposure,  made  of  the  shady  side  of  the 
street,  will  not  affect  the  sensitive  film  any  more  than  the 
snap-shot  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  street  did.  Number  3, 
which  is  a  snap-shot  of  the  shady  side  of  the  street,  will  be 
under-timed  and  yield  a  very  poor  picture.  Our  object  in 
having  this  under-timed  exposure  is  to  show  that  snap-shot 
exposures  cannot  be  made  of  any  subject  in  the  shade. 


1 20  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

196.  It  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  street  scene  for  these 
experiments.  Any  view  will  do  which  shows  strong  sun- 
light and  shadow.  You  can  apply  the  same  method  to  a 
house  first  making  an  exposure  from  a  point  with  the  sun 
shining  on  the  house,  then  making  another  exposure  on  the 
side  in  shadow.  Both  exposures  will  illustrate  the  same 
effect.  With  a  6-exposure  film,  expose  numbers  5  and  6  on 
some  public  building  or  residence,  making  instantaneous  ex- 
posures of  both  under  different  circumstances. 

197.  Removing  Film  from  Kodak. — No  dark-room  is 
required  for  changing  the  spools.  The  operation  can  be  per- 
formed in  the  open  air,  but  to  avoid  all  liability  of  fogging 
the  edges  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  film  in  a  subdued 
light.  When  the  last  film  has  been  exposed  in  the  kodak 
give  the  key  about  a  dozen  turns,  thus  covering  the  film 
with  black  paper  again.  Remove  the  spool  from  the  kodak 
in  exactly  the  reverse  manner  in  which  you  loaded  it.  Be 
sure  that  the  black  paper  is  wrapped  tightly  around  the 
spool  of  film ;  then  fasten  down  the  end  of  the  black  paper 
with  the  piece  of  gummed  paper  usually  attached  to  the 
end  of  roll,  or  with  a  rubber  band  or  piece  of  twine.  It  is 
further  advisable  to  wrap  this  exposed  film  in  black  paper 
until  you  are  ready  to  develop  it.  After  removing  an  ex- 
posed film  from  the  camera,  take  the  empty  spool  from  its 
recess  and  transfer  to  the  winding  side,  bringing  the  slotted 
end  of  the  spool,  into  which  the  key  is  to  fit,  opposite  the 
keyhole  and  proceed  to  load  the  kodak  with  a  new  film,  as 
at  first  directed. 

198.  Film  Development. — Read  carefully  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  dark-room  which  is  given  in  Chapter  II,  in  para- 
graphs 95  to  98.    With  very  few  exceptions  the  development 


Kodaks  and  Films,  1 2 1 

of  a  film  is  the  same  as  of  plates,  and  you  will  need  pre- 
cisely the  same  outfit;  viz.,  a  good  ruby  lamp,  four  trays,  a 
measuring  glass,  stirring  rod,  developer,  and  fixing 
chemicals. 

199.  Fill  one  of  the  trays  nearly  full  of  clear  water  and 
place  this  tray  at  your  extreme  left,  on  the  developing  table. 
Open  one  of  the  developing  powders  and  dissolve  according 
to  the  directions  given  in  Chapter  III,  paragraph  No.  117; 
then  pour  this  solution  into  a  second  tray  placing  the  tray 


Illnstration  No.  24. 


next  to  the  water.  Now  close  the  dark-room  door.  To  de- 
velop the  film,  unroll  it  and  detach  the  entire  strip  from  the 
black  paper.  Pass  the  film  through  the  tray  of  clear  water 
several  times  (see  Illustration  24,)  holding  one  end  in  each 
hand.  This  wets  the  surface  of  the  film  and  enables  the  de- 
veloper to  come  in  perfect  contact  with  the  emulsion,  when 
the  film  is  placed  in  the  developer.  Now  pass  the  film 
through  the  developer  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  you 
did  while  wetting  it,  but  face  down.    Keep  the  film  contin- 


1 22  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

ually  in  motion,  and  in  about  one  minute  the  high-lights 
(the  strongest  lights)  will  begin  to  show  up  darker.  The 
unexposed  portions  will  be  distinguishable  from  the  exposed, 
and  in  about  two  minutes  you  will  be  able  to  make  out 
various  objects  in  the  picture. 

200.  An  improvement  on  the  ordinary  tray  for  de- 
veloping films  will  be  found  in  the  Ingento  Film  Trough. 
This  trough  is  specially  adapted  for  the  developing  of  roll 
films  by  hand,  as  will  be  seen  by  Illustration  No.  25.  It  is 
fitted  with  a  rod  adjusted  near  the  bottom  of  the  trough.   The 


lUustratioQ  No.  25. 

film  is  slipped  underneath  this  rod  and  drawn  up  and  down 
during  the  development,  the  rod  holding  the  film  under 
the  solution  all  the  while.  This  trough  is  seven  inches  long, 
and  will  accommodate  all  sizes  of  films  from  5x7  down  to 
the  smallest.  The  trough  is  supplied  with  wood  or  metal 
base;  the  latter  is  preferable,  as  its  weight  prevents  the 
trough  from  tipping  over,  while  the  wood  base  would  need 
to  be  fastened  to  the  table.  When  this  trough  is  employed, 
it  may  be  filled  with  water  and  used  for  wetting  the  film, 
after  which  the  water  is  poured  off  and  developer  poured 
into  the  trough  and  the  film  developed. 


i 


Kodaks  and  Films.  1 23 

201.  If  the  film  develops  evenly  it  shows  that  all  ex- 
posures were  uniform,  considering  the  amount  of  illumina- 
tion— development  may  be  completed  without  cutting  them 
apart.  The  progress  of  development  may  be  watched  by 
holding  the  film  up  to  the  ruby  light,  from  time  to  time. 
Read  paragraph  124,  of  Chapter  III,  to  judge  when  develop- 
ment is  complete.  If  some  exposures  on  the  film  flash  up 
more  quickly  than  the  others,  cut  the  film  apart  with  a  pair  of 
shears  and  place  the  film  in  a  tray  of  clear  water.  The  cut 
films  may  be  immersed  in  the  developer  and  developed  in  the 
usual  manner,  carrying  the  over-exposures  farther  than  the 
others,  in  order  to  secure  the  proper  amount  of  contrast. 
When  each  film  is  completely  developed,  transfer  to  the 
third  tray  and  rinse  two  or  three  times  with  clear,  cold 
water.  Then  place  in  the  "fixing  bath."  (See  paragraph  125.) 

202.  Cutting  Films. — It  is  sometimes  found  preferable 
to  cut  the  film  up  into  the  individual  exposures  before  de- 
velopment. In  this  case  you  must  exercise  care  in  unroll- 
ing the  film,  so  that  the  film  does  not  roll  up  over  the  paper. 
The  exposures  should  be  cut  apart  with  the  paper  on  top. 
Cut  by  the  marks  appearing  midway  between  the  figures  in 
the  center  of  the  black  paper.  In  cutting  Panoram  films, 
follow  the  special  instructions  given  in  the  manual  accom- 
panying the  Panoram  camera.  Proceed  to  develop  the  in- 
dividual films,  according  to  the  directions  for  developing  the 
roll  of  film,  keeping  the  face  side  of  the  film  down,  in  order 
to  prevent  curling. 

203.  Rinsing  Films. — When  the  films  are  devel- 
oped rinse  them  in  three  changes  of  water,  and  then  pass 

them  into  the  acid  fixing  bath.    This  can  be  made  up  from 
the  perpared  fixing  powders,  which  only  call  for  the  addi- 


1 24  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

tion  of  water;  or  by  the  student  himself,  according  to  the 
following  formula : 

204.  Formula  for  Acid  Fixing  Bath. 

Water     l6  ounces 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda   4  ounces 

Sulphite  of  Soda   8o  grains 

When  this  is  fully  dissolved  add : 

Powdered    Alum     %  ounce 

Citric   Acid    %  ounce 

In  place  of  the  Citric  Acid  you  may  use  ^  ounce  Acetic 
Acid,  but  you  must  be  sure  that  it  contains  25  per  cent,  pure 
acid. 

205.  This  bath  can  be  used  repeatedly  so  long  as  it  re- 
tains its  strength  and  remains  sufficiently  clear  not  to  stain 
the  film.  The  regular  acid  hypo  fixing  bath  can  be  pur- 
chased in  powdered  form,  ready  for  use,  from  any  photo- 
graphic stock  house.  There  should  be  sufficient  fixing  solu- 
tion in  your  tray  to  completely  cover  the  films  when  im- 
mersed during  the  entire  process  of  fixing,  as  otherwise  the 
films  will  fix  unevenly  and  stains  will  be  produced  if  they 
are  left  partly  exposed  to  the  air.  Non-curling  films  can  be 
fixed  in  the  plain  hypo  bath  recommended  for  plates  but 
when  using  this  bath  the  films  must  be  rinsed  in  three 
changes  of  clear  water  after  fixing,  and  then  placed  into  an 
alum  bath  prepared  as  follows: 

Water    i6  ounces 

Alum  (crystals)    i  ounce 

Of  this  solution  decant  into  a  tray  enough  of  the  clear  liquid 
to  cover  the  films,  and  allow  them  to  remain  in  this  bath 


Kodaks  and  Pdms.  1 27 

for  five  minutes;  then  wash  in  the  ordinary  manner.  The 
alum  hypo  bath  can  be  used  continually  until  it  becomes 
discolored  or  so  exhausted  that  it  will  not  harden  the  film. 

206.  Washing  Films. — The  hypo  must  be  thoroughly 
removed  from  the  film.  There  are  several  ways  of  doing 
this.  Place  the  film  in  a  wash-bowl  of  cold  water  and  allow 
it  to  soak,  for  five  minutes  each,  in  five  changes  of  cold 
water,  moving  it  about  occasionally  to  insure  the  water 
acting  uniformly  upon  it.  Or,  give  it  a  couple  of  changes 
as  above,  and  then  leave  the  film  for  an  hour  in  a  bowl  set 
under  a  tap  of  running  water. 

207.  With  a  bath  tub  and  a  piece  of  pine  board  avail- 
able, the  following  is  a  very  convenient  way  to  wash  film 
negatives :  The  board  must  be  a  little  longer  and  a  trifle  wider 
than  your  strip  of  negatives.  Pin  the  strip,  back  down  (the 
back  is  the  shiny  side),  upon  the  board,  being  careful  not  to 
touch  the  faces  of  the  negatives  with  your  fingers.  Run  cold 
water  to  a  depth  of  six  inches  into  the  bath  tub,  and  then 
float  your  board  in  the  tub,  film  side  down.  The  hypo,  being 
heavier  than  the  water,  will  go  to  the  bottom  of  the  tub, 
and  in  half  an  hour  your  films  will  be  completely  washed. 
The  hypo  cannot  be  removed  from  films  by  simply  leaving 
these  in  a  basin  or  tray  of  water.  Hypo  is  heavier  than 
water  and  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  the  films,  also,  are  heav- 
ier than  water.  Consequently,  unless  the  water  is  contin- 
ually changing,  or  is  changed  every  few  moments,  the  films 
are  never  actually  out  of  the  hypo  solution,  and  cannot  thus 
be  expected  to  become  free  of  the  hypo.  Only  by  generous 
washing  in  fresh  water  can  the  hypo  be  properly  removed 
from  films  or  plates. 


128  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

208.  Care  of  Wet  Films. — Owing  to  their  flexibility, 
films  stand  greater  chances  of  becoming  injured  and  the 
emulsion  separated  from  the  celluloid  support  than  do  glass 
plates.  Therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  handle  the  film,  in  all 
of  the  various  solutions,  with  exceptional  care  and  the  tem- 
perature of  all  the  baths  should  never  be  over  65°  Fahr. 
Especially  is  this  true  in  summer  or  in  hot  climates,  when 
you  should  have  your  developing  tray  placed  in  another 
tray  of  water  containing  a  small  piece  of  ice,  or  running 
water. 

209.  Drying  Films. — When  thoroughly  washed,  re- 
move the  surplus  water  from  the  film  with  a  flat,  soft  rubber 
squeegee,  a  soft,  damp  cloth,  or  a  damp  ball  of  cotton,  treat- 
ing both  sides  of  the  film  alike.  To  do  this  lay  the  film  on 
a  piece  of  glass  or  on  oilcloth,  and  pass  the  squeegee  or  damp 
cloth  over  it,  being  careful  that  there  is  no  grit  on  the  squee- 
gee or  the  cloth  to  scratch  the  film.  Remove  all  the  surplus 
moisture  before  hanging  up  to  dry.  If  the  moisture  and 
tear  drops  are  not  removed  they  will  cause  transparent 
spots  and  streaks,  which  will  show  black  in  the  print. 
Stretch  a  string  across  the  corner  of  the  room.  Bend 
two  pins  like  fish  hooks.  Push  these  through  the  corners 
of  one  end  of  the  film  to  the  heads,  and  hook  one  end  of  the 
film  over  the  string;  or,  use  the  metal  or  wooden  photo  clips 
which  can  be  bought  at  any  dealer's.  After  the  films  are 
dry,  keep  them  flat  by  placing  them  in  a  book. 

210.  This  instruction  is  intended  to  train  the  beginner 
in  the  use  of  the  proper  light,  to  make  a  snap-shot  or  time 
exposure,  and  also  to  serve  as  a  primary  lesson  in  devel- 
oping films. 


Kodaks  and  Firm.  1 29 

211.  Kodoid  Plates  or  Cut  Films. — Kodoid  plates  or 
cut  films  are  used  in  the  regular  plate  holders  in  the  same 
manner  as  glass  plates.  They  are,  practically  speaking, 
cut  non-curling  films,  fastened  on  a  card  mount  or  support 
by  retaining  clips.  As  Kodoid  plates  are  very  rapid,  and 
orthochromatic,  they  must  be  handled  only  in  a  safe  ruby 
light  to  avoid  fogging.  To  load  your  plate  holders  with  the 
Kodoid  plates  proceed  according  to  the  directions  gfiven  in 
Chapter  II,  paragraphs  92  and  93,  for  loading  glass  plates. 
After  the  exposure,  and  when  you  are  ready  to  develop  the 
negatives,  remove  the  film  from  the  mount  by  pulling  off 
the  retaining  clips  with  a  knife  blade.  Slip  the  film  into  the 
developer,  with  the  face  side  down  (the  face  is  the  dull  side), 
keeping  it  moving  to  avoid  air-bells.  As  soon  as  it  is  thor- 
oughly wet  with  developer  it  may  be  turned  face  up.  The 
general  manipulation  during  the  development  is  the  same 
as  for  the  handling  of  roll  film. 

212.  As  with  roll  films,  there  is  danger  of  the  emulsion 
on  Kodoid  plates  becoming  soft,  unless  all  solutions  are 
maintained  at  a  low  temperature.  After  the  Kodoid  plate 
is  developed,  rinse  it  two  or  three  times  and  transfer  to  a 
saturated  solution  of  common  alum  for  a  couple  of  minutes. 
Then  it  can  be  placed  in  a  plain  hypo  bath,  made  up  of  one 
ounce  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  dissolved  in  four  ounces  of 
water,  but  if  possible,  employ  an  acid  hypo  bath ;  then  it  is 
not  necessary  to  place  the  film  in  the  alum  hardening  solu- 
tion. The  process  of  fixing,  washing  and  drying  must  be 
carried  on  exactly  as  prescribed  in  paragraphs  202  to  209  for 
the  fixing,  washing  and  drying  of  roll  and  cut  films. 

213.  Film  Pack. — The  pleasure  of  making  pictures,  to 
those  who  desire  to  use  a  regular  plate  camera,  is  often 


1 30  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

marred  by  the  burden  of  glass  plates  which  have  to  be  car- 
ried. The  student  may  not  wish  to  buy  a  roll  holder  attach- 
ment which  will  accommodate  roll  films,  and  yet  the  weight 
and  bulk  of  plates  may  deter  him  from  much  of  the  instruc- 
tion and  pleasure  he  can  gain  with  his  camera.  Also,  there 
is  a  distinct  advantage  in  being  able  to  focus  on  the  ground- 
glass  and  see  each  picture  before  the  exposure,  which  is  not 
practical  with  the  folding  film  cameras.  This  problem  has 
been  worked  out  in  a  very  simple  and  effective  manner. 
The  film  pack  is  the  solution,  and  the  value  of  what,  to 
many,  has  always  been  the  most  desirable  of  photographic 
instruments,  namely,  the  plate  camera,  is  thereby  enor- 
mously increased. 

214.  The  film  pack  consists  of  twelve  flat  cut  films 
packed  together  in  a  light-proof  paper  case  the  size  of  an 
ordinary  plate  holder,  with  an  opening  on  one  side  the  exact 
size  and  shape  of  the  film  to  be  exposed.  From  the  top  of 
this  case  thirteen  black  paper  tabs  protrude,  twelve  of  which 
are  the  ends  of  the  black  paper  lying  between  each  film,  and 
the  remaining  one,  marked  "safety  cover,"  being  the  end  of 
the  black  paper  which  protects  the  entire  pack  from  light. 
Each  of  the  twelve  tabs  is  numbered,  the  numbers  referring 
to  the  different  sheets  of  film  to  which  the  tabs  are  at- 
tached. 

215.  The  complete  pack  weighs  less  than  an  ordinary 
plate  holder,  although  containing  material  for  twelve  ex- 
posures instead  of  two.  The  operation  of  the  film  pack  is 
to  the  last  degree  simple.  There  is  an  inexpensive  adapter 
(see  Illustration  No.  26  of  a  Film  Pack  Adapter)  to  take  the 
place  of  the  plate  holder  and  a  film  pack  to  take  the  place 
of  the  plates.    The  film  pack  can  be  loaded  into  the  adapter 


Illustration  No.  26 

I-'ilm  I'ack 

See  I'arajjiaph  Xo.  215 


Illustration  No.  26a 
Example  of  Fogging  Caused  by  Failing  to  Wind  Film  Tightly  on  Spoo 
See  i'aragraph  No.  229 


Kodaks  and  Films.  1 33 

in  daylight,  which  is  more  simple  and  more  convenient  than 
loading  the  plate  holder  with  dry  plates, 

216.  After  the  picture  is  focused  on  the  ground-glass, 
the  adapter  containing  the  film  pack  is  inserted  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  regular  plate  holder.  The  label  on  the  face 
of  the  pack  should  be  broken  previous  to  inserting  it  in  the 
adapter.  Having  placed  the  adapter  in  position  in  the  cam- 
era, remove  the  slide  and  pull  out  the  tab  on  the  film  pack 
marked  "safety  cover,"  and  film  No.  1  is  presented  for  expo- 
sure. When  the  exposure  has  been  made,  pull  out  from  the 
pack  the  tab  marked  No.  1,  which  operation  rolls  film  No.  1 
around  to  the  back  of  the  pack,  leaving  No.  2  presented  for 
exposure.  This  exposure  being  made,  tab  No.  2  is  pulled 
out  and  film  No,  3  is  ready.  Repeat  the  operation,  removing 
the  exposed  films  one  at  a  time,  as  additional  exposures  are 
to  be  made. 

217.  As  each  tab  is  drawn  out  it  must  not  be  left  at- 
tached to  the  pack,  as  it  is  of  no  further  use.  It  should  be 
torn  off  across  the  metal  edge  and  thrown  away.  When  all 
the  tabs  are  pulled  out  and  torn  off,  the  pack  is  exhausted 
and  has  been  automatically  made  light-tight  by  the  pulling 
out  of  the  last  tab.  The  pack  may  then  be  taken  from  the 
camera  in  daylight  and  replaced  by  a  fresh  one.  With  the  film 
pack  one  can  make  the  whole  twelve  exposures  in  as  many 
seconds.  If  one  desires  to  focus  on  the  ground-glass  be- 
tween each  exposure,  replace  the  dark  slide  and,  like  a  plate 
holder,  the  adapter  containing  the  film  pack  may  be  safely 
removed. 

218.  If  you  desire  to  substitute  plates  for  films,  you 
can  readily  do  so,  as  the  adapter  and  pack  may  be  removed 
at  any  time,    Plate  holder  and  plate  can  be  substituted  for 


1 34  Libraryf  of  Practical  Photography. 

any  desired  exposure,  the  film  operation  being  afterward 
resumed  by  the  insertion  of  the  adapter  containing  the  pack. 

219.  CAUTION.  When  pulling  out  any  black  tab 
with  one  hand  press  the  remaining  tabs  under  your  finger  or 
thumb  of  the  other  hand.  This  will  prevent  the  possibility 
of  pulling  out  of  more  than  one  tab  at  a  time. 

220.  The  films  used  in  the  film  pack  do  not  curl  upon 
development.  Like  roll  films,  they  are  non-halation,  and  also 
orthochromatic  to  a  marked  degree,  being  very  sensitive  to 
yellow,  which  makes  them  very  rapid  and  of  special  value 
on  dull  or  "yellow"  days.  The  films  are,  of  course,  un- 
breakable and  can  be  sent  through  the  mail. 

221.  Another  feature  of  the  film  pack  is,  that  any  num- 
ber of  films  can  be  removed  and  developed  without  touching 
the  unexposed  films  remaining  in  the  pack.  To  remove  one 
or  more  films  for  development,  before  the  entire  pack  is  ex- 
posed, proceed  as  follows: 

222.  Removing  Films  from  Film  Pack.— Take  the 
camera  or  adapter  to  the  dark-room,  remove  the  pack  and 
break  the  red  seal  at  the  sides,  near  the  bottom,  which  will 
open  the  pack,  thus  giving  access  to  the  exposed  films.  Af- 
ter removing  the  exposed  films,  the  pack  can  be  replaced, 
without  sealing,  in  the  camera  or  adapter  before  leaving  the 
dark-room,  when  everything  is  ready  for  additional  expos- 
ures. The  films  are  attached  to  black  paper  supports  at  one 
end  and  they  may  be  readily  separated,  but  care  should  be 
exercised  when  separating  the  paper,  for  tearing  them  apart 
quickly  will,  by  the  friction,  cause  electric  sparks  which  will 
generally  fog  the  film.  One  may  develop  the  films  singly  if 
desired.    The  paper  supports  are  numbered  to  correspond 


i 


Kodaks  and  Films,  1 37 

with  the  tabs,  so  that  by  noting  a  given  exposure,  at  the 
time  of  making  it,  proper  treatment  may  be  given  this  par- 
ticular film. 

223.  Developing  Film  Pack  Negatives. — Throughout 
the  process  of  development,  etc.,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
touch  the  face  of  the  film.  After  the  film  is  placed  in  the 
developer,  the  tray  should  be  kept  constantly  in  motion  until 
the  desired  density  is  obtained.  This  film  should  be  placed 
in  all  the  solutions  face  downward. 

224.  The  development  of  the  films  used  in  the  film 
pack  is  identical  with  that  of  the  cut  films,  or  of  the  dry 
plate,  with  the  exception  that  the  latter  is  developed  face 
up.  For  developing  we  recommend  the  prepared  powders 
referred  to  in  the  Film  Instruction. 

225.  If  a  number  of  films  are  to  be  fixed  together  in 
one  tray,  they  should  be  put  in  one  at  a  time,  face  down,  to 
avoid  scratching,  and  they  should  be  handled  over  occasion- 
ally to  avoid  matting  together  and  insure  thorough  fixing. 
After  fixing,  wash  thoroughly  before  drying.  Use  the  regu- 
lar Hypo  Acid  Fixing  Bath. 

226.  To  dry,  pin  the  film  up  by  one  corner  to  the  edge 
of  a  shelf  or  similar  projection,  being  sure  that  it  swings 
clear  of  the  wall  in  order  that  nothing  may  come  in  contact 
with  either  side  until  thoroughly  dry. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
KODAKS  AND  FILMS— DIFFICULTIES. 

227.  Loading  Roll  Film  in  Kodak. — No  difficulty  will  be  ex- 
perienced if,  in  loading  the  roll  into  the  kodak,  you  follow  the 
instructions  which  accompany  each  roll  of  film.  If  the  spool  does 
not  slip  into  place  easily  you  no  doubt  are  handling  it  so  that  the 
ends  of  the  spool  are  not  parallel  with  the  sides  of  the  camera.  It 
is  necessary,  in  some  of  the  types  of  kodaks,  to  pull  out  or  turn 
to  the  left  the  little  pins  which  hold  the  film  in  place.  These  pins 
extend  through  each  side  of  the  camera  and  must  be  withdrawn 
previous  to  the  insertion  of  the  spool.  The  spool  will  then  drop 
into  its  proper  position;  after  which  the  pins  are  turned  or  pushed 
in  so  as  tq  fit  snugly  into  the  center  of  the  spool.  After  tearing 
loose  the  paper  band  that  keeps  the  black  paper  from  unwinding, 
unroll  enough  of  the  black  paper  to  reach  the  winding  spool,  and 
as  soon  as  you  have  fastened  it  into  this  spool,  give  it  a  couple 
of  turns. 

228.  The  back  is  now  replaced  so  as  to  exclude  all  light  from 
the  interior.  Keep  on  turning  the  spool  until  you  see  in  the  little 
red  window  the  hand  or  the  number  1;  if  instead  of  a  number  a 
white  surface  suddenly  comes  before  the  red  window,  you  may 
know  immediately  that  you  have  placed  the  roll  of  film  in  the 
holder  wrong.  The  film,  in  place  of  drawing  from  over  the  top 
of  the  roll,  is  very  likely  drawing  from  underneath;  consequently 
the  film  side  of  the  roll  is  facing  out  instead  of  in  toward  the  lens; 
in  other  words,  the  black  paper  is  between  the  film  and  the  lens. 
Before  winding  any  further  from  the  spool,  take  the  camera  to 
your  dark-room  and  remove  both  spools;  wind  the  black  paper  and 
film  back  to  the  original  spool  and  then  reinsert  the  spools  in  posi- 
tion properly. 

(139; 


140  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

229.  Winding  Film  in  Kodak. — Illustration  26a  shows  a  sec- 
tion of  film  which  was  not  wound  tightly  on  the  spool,  the  portion 
of  it  buckling  outward,  thus  admitting  a  streak  of  light  which  caused 
the  fog  across  the  middle  of  the  film  negative  and  also  the  fog  at  the 
sides.  Care  must  always  be  exercised  to  keep  the  spool  tightly 
wound  in  the  camera  and  also  tightly  wound  when  removing  it 
from  the  holder.  Immediately  after  removing  the  exposed  roll 
from  the  camera  fasten  the  end  of  the  black  paper  with  the  strip 
of  gummed  paper  which  accompanies  the  spool;  or  you  can  use  a 
rubber  band.  Previous  to  inserting  the  roll  of  film  in  the  camera, 
be  sure  that  the  shutter  is  closed;  for,  after  you  have  placed  the 
film  into  position  for  the  first  exposure,  should  the  lens  be  opened 
you  will  immediately  fog  the  film.  Having  once  unrolled  the  film 
the  shutter  must  be  always  kept  closed,  except  when  making 
exposures. 

230.  Double  Exposure  on  a  Film. — After  you  have  made  the 
first  exposure,  turn  the  winding  key  until  the  figure  2  appears  at  the 
little  red  window,  at  the  rear  of  the  camera,  indicating  that  the 
film  is  ready  for  the  next  picture.  Should  you  neglect  to  turn  the 
film  immediately  after  making  exposure,  you  are  very  apt  to  make  a 
double  exposure  on  the  section  which  has  already  been  exposed. 

231.  Double  and  Blurred  Images. — Double  and  blurred  images 
will  occur,  when  making  time  exposures,  if  the  object  moves;  or 
the  camera  itself  may  have  been  moved  or  shaken  during  the 
exposure.  For  all  time  exposures  the  instrument  must  remain 
perfectly  rigid  (unmoved)  during  the  exposure.  It  is  very  essential 
to  have  a  tripod,  although  for  interior  work  it  is  feasible  to  set  the 
camera  on  a  small  table  or  stand  and  secure  satisfactory  results, 
but  the  tripod  is  more  convenient. 

232.  Development  Difficulties. — The  difficulties  which  occur 
in  development  will  be  practically  the  same  as  those  described 
under  the  difficulties  given  for  developing  the  dry  plate. 

233.  Streaks  and  Light  Spots  Caused  During  Development.— 
Difficulties  will  occur  when  the  film  has  not  been  properly — i.  e. 
completely — immersed  in  the  developer  at  the  very  start.  Soak  the 
film,  for  half  a  minute  or  so,  in  clear  water,  before  placing  it  in 


Kodaks  an  J  Films — Difficulties.  141 

the  developer,  thus  softening  the  emulsion  to  a  certain  extent  and 
wetting  its  surface  so  that  the  developer  may  immediately  begin  its 
action  on  all  portions  at  identically  the  same  time.  Place  the 
film  in  the  developer  with  the  emulsion  (dull)  side  down  and  keep 
it  moving  in  the  developer. 

234.  White  Spots  on  Film  After  Fixing. — This  would  indicate 
that  the  film  was  not  entirely  immersed  in  the  hypo,  or  that  parts 
of  the  film  had  become  stuck  together,  thus  preventing  these  white 
portions  from  becoming  fixed.  Always  handle  and  separate  the  film 
a  few  times  during  fixing. 

235.  Pencil  Lines  on  Film. — These  are  caused  in  two  distinctly 
different  ways:  First,  if  there  is  any  dust  in  the  camera  or  if  the 
rollers  over  which  the  film  runs  are  not  absolutely  smooth,  the  film 
will  be  scratched  or  the  dust  in  the  camera,  collecting  on  these 
rollers,  will  cause  black  scratches  and  streaks  longitudinally  across 
the  developed  film.  Second,  should  you  draw  the  film  with  the 
emulsion  side  down  through  the  developer,  so  that  the  film  strikes 
the  bottom  of  the  tray,  it  is  likely  to  be  scratched.  Abrasion  marks 
will  immediately  appear,  which  reproduce  in  the  finished  print  as 
white  lines. 

236.  Since  there  is  no  way  of  remedying  these  lines  and  streaks 
upon  the  film,  exercise  the  greatest  of  care,  when  developing  the 
film,  not  to  allow  its  surface  to  come  in  contact  with  anything 
excepting  the  solution.  In  fact,  this  caution  must  be  observed 
during  every  stage  of  the  handling  of  the  film,  from  the  removal 
from  the  camera  to  the  placing  in  the  printing  frame.  Do  not 
allow  your  fingers  to  come  in  contact  with  either  side  of  the  film, 
even  when  it  is  dry.  When  it  is  necessary  to  handle  the  film,  take 
hold  of  the  extreme  edges  only.  All  films  on  the  market  at  the 
present  time  are  non-curling,  and  during  the  process  of  manufac- 
ture, in  order  to  make  them  non-curling,  both  sides  of  the  celluloid 
support  are  coated  with  gelatin.  The  gelatin  on  the  back  of  the 
film,  however,  is  not  sensitized,  but  is  merely  a  coating  to  keep 
the  film  from  curling. 

237.  Blank  Spaces  in  the  Developed  Roll  Film. — Should  you 
observe  spaces  in  the  film  that  are  entirely  blank,  you  have  either 


142  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

very  much  undertimed  that  particular  exposure  or  else  your  shutter 
did  not  work  and  no  exposure  was  given.  Upon  developing  further, 
should  an  exposure,  which  at  the  beginning  appeared  perfectly 
blank,  commence  to  build  up  a  trifle,  cut  out  this  film  and  place 
it  in  a  tray  of  clear  water.  Let  it  remain  there  until  you  have  com- 
pleted the  development  of  the  film;  then,  take  this  under-exposed 
section  of  the  film  and  place  it  in  fresh  developer.  It  should  im- 
mediately commence  to  build  up  in  density  and  in  detail,  although, 
in  the  majority  of  cases  of  under-exposure,  the  film  will  gain  but 
little  strength  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  again  place  the  film  back 
into  clear  water,  where  it  should  remain  undisturbed  for  five  min- 
utes or  so.  Repeat  this  operation  from  the  clear  water  to  the 
developer  a  number  of  times,  allowing  the  film  to  remain  in  each 
for  a  period  of  four  or  five  minutes.  By  this  means  you  will  obtain 
all  the  strength  and  detail  possible  in  an  under-exposed  film. 
While  in  the  developer  remember  the  film  should  be  kept  in  con- 
tinual motion.  This  will  assist  the  development  and  also  prevent 
spots;  but,  while  in  the  water  the  film  should  not  be  disturbed. 

238.  Black  Sections  in  the  Roll  Film. — After  placing  the  roll 
film  in  the  developer,  should  certain  exposures  flash  up  black  all 
over,  it  is  a  sign  of  fog  or  extreme  over-exposure.  In  that  case, 
nothing  can  be  done  to  save  it  and  all  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  remaining  exposures. 

239.  Securing  Uniform  Exposures  on  Roll  Film. — Those  using 
roll  film  should  make  an  effort  to  secure  exposures  as  uniform  as 
possible,  as  that  will  greatly  facilitate  work  in  the  dark-room,  and 
will  also  produce  superior  results.  Time  exposures  and  snapshots, 
to  be  successful,  should  not  be  made  on  the  same  roll  of  film.  If 
they  are,  carefully  judge  the  time  necessary,  so  that  long  exposures 
in  subdued  or  weak  light  will  not  have  a  greater  effect  on  the  film 
than  the  snap-shot  in  bright  sunlight.  Judge  your  light  before 
making  the  exposure.  If  extremely  strong,  or  should  you  be  mak- 
ing snow  pictures,  with  bright  sunlight  shining  upon  the  snow, 
stop  your  lens  down  to  f/i6  or  f/32  and  use  the  instantaneous  shut- 
ter or  the  1-50  of  a  second.  Then,  when  you  come  to  make  an 
exposure,  on  the  same  roll  of  film,  of  a  dark  object  in  the  shade, 
use  the  lens  practically  wide  open  and  give  what  you  think  the 


Kodaks  and  Films — Difficulties.  143 

proper  exposure;  i.  c,  a  corresponding  exposure  according  to  the 
light,  which  would  be  about  one-half  second.  If  you  wish  to  make 
an  interior  of  a  room,  not  very  well  lighted,  stop  down  to  secure 
the  desired  depth  of  sharp  focus.  If  you  stop  down  to  f/64  it 
may  be  necessary  to  give  a  minute's  exposure  to  get  a  fully  timed 
negative. 

240.  It  is  difficult  to  give  absolutely  correct  directions  for  the 
making  of  the  exposure,  as  light  conditions  are  so  different  in 
almost  every  case,  that  it  is  necessary  to  experiment  and  to  exer- 
cise considerable  judgment. 

241.  Difficulties  with  Cut  Films,  Film  Pack,  Etc.— The  difficul- 
ties we  have  mentioned  in  the  development  of  a  roll  film  will  apply 
equally  to  all  cut  films.  Cut  films  should  be  developed  face  side 
down,  and  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  rub  the  edges  of  the  film, 
which  will  loosen  the  emulsion  from  the  celluloid  support;  nor 
must  the  edges  of  the  film  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
emulsion  side  of  any  other  film,  as  the  result  would  be  scratches 
and  torn  sections  upon  that  film. 

242.  Softening  of  the  Film. — In  warm  weather  there  is  always 
a  tendency  for  the  emulsion  to  become  soft,  which  will  result  in 
blisters  and  excessive  frilling  around  the  edges.  The  temperature 
of  the  developer  should  never  be  over  65°  Fahr.  in  summer,  and  it 
is  very  advisable  to  use  an  acid  fixing  bath,  which  will  harden  the 
emulsion  on  the  film  and  do  away  with  any  possibility  of  its  soften- 
ing when  placed  in  the  final  wash  water. 

243.  Drying. — Films  must  be  hung  up  to  dry  and  never  allowed 
to  come  in  contact  with  any  material  whatever,  for  that  material 
will  stick  to  the  film  and  ruin  it. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Tank  Developing  for  Films. 
No  Dark-Room  Necessary. 

244.  Of  all  methods  of  developing  films  the  develop- 
ing machine  or  tank  is  the  simplest,  and  with  this  sim- 
plicity is  included  the  possibility  of  the  very  finest  results. 

245.  By  the  tank  method,  of  course,  the  action  of  the 
developer  upon  the  film  is  all  concealed — you  see  nothing 
until  the  negatives  are  completely  developed,  and,  therefore, 
were  you  to  begin  your  instruction  with  tank  development 
you  would  not  have  a  real  knowledge  of  negative  develop- 
ing. For  this  reason  it  is  essential  that  anyone  intending 
to  become  thoroughly  proficient  in  negative  making  first 
learn  to  develop  in  an  open  tray,  where  they  can  watch  the 
operation  and  see  what  they  are  doing,  and  observe  the 
progress  of  development  of  the  latent  image.  In  this  way 
alone  will  you  learn  to  understand  and  know  what  is  to  be 
expected  from  films  exposed  under  various  conditions.  With 
a  knowledge  of  the  process  of  development  based  upon  this 
practical  experience,  simplified  methods  may  be  employed 
and  the  developing  tank  brought  into  practical  use. 

246.  From  the  foregoing  it  must  not  be  inferred  that 
the  developing  tank  cannot  be  used  from  the  very  begin- 
ning. It  can  be  employed  successfully  before  the  student 
has  any  experience  with  tray  development  whatever,  but  it 
is  not  possible  for  that  student  to  have  the  practical  knowl- 

(145) 


1 46  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

edge  of  negative  making  that  is  so  essential  if  his  individu- 
ality is  to  count  for  anything  in  his  work. 

247.  For  the  amateur  who  cares  nothing  about  the 
whys  and  wherefores — whose  only  desire  is  to  secure  rec- 
ords of  vacation  scenes,  home  surroundings,  etc.,  for  the 
pleasure  of  having  such  records,  doing  away  with  all  bother 
— then  the  tank  may  be  employed  from  the  start.  On  the 
other  hand,  however,  if  negative  making  is  to  be  thoroughly 
understood,  then  tray  development,  where  one  can  watch 
the  image  grow,  must  be  employed.  Only  with  a  knowledge 
of  what  is  to  be  accomplished  thoroughly  impressed  upon 
the  mind  can  one  appreciate  the  advantage  of  tank  develop- 
ment and  employ  it  intelligently. 

248.  The  best  known  -type  of  machine  or  tank  for  film 
development  is  the  Eastman  Film  Tank.  (See  Illustration 
No.  27.)  This  tank  is  the  successor  to  the  original  film 
machine,  which  was  the  first  practical  instrument  of  its 
nature,  and  in  which  the  exposed  film  was  enfolded  in  a 
protective  celluloid  apron,  and  at  the  same  time  made  to 
rotate  in  the  developing  solution  for  a  fixed  period  of  time. 
The  tank  method  differs  from  the  machine,  in  that  the  ex- 
posed film  is  rolled  up  with  the  protective  celluloid  apron 
in  one  operation,  and  then  the  two  together  are  brought 
into  a  tank  or  receptacle  containing  the  developing  solution, 
and  there  left  for  a  given  period  of  time,  according  to  the 
strength  and  the  temperature  of  the  developer.  This  method 
is  simpler  than  the  former,  in  so  far  as  the  film  does  not 
require  to  be  continuously  rotated  enabling  the  operator  to 
proceed  with  some  other  work. 

249.  All  tank  development  is  based  on  the  factors  of 
time  and  temperature.    A  given  strength  of  developer  at  a  cer- 


Illustration    No.    27. 

Eastman   Film  Tank. 

See  Paragraph   Xo.  248. 


Illustration    No.   28. 

Winding  Box. 

See  Paragraph  Xo.  254. 


Illustration    X'o.    29. 

Premo   Cut-Film   Developing  Tank. 

See  Paragraph  X'o.  259. 

Eastman  Film  Tank. 


Tank  Developing  for  Fdms.  149 

tain  temperature,  requires  a  given  time  for  development.    This 
is  the  principle  back  of  all  tank  or  stand  development. 

250.  The  normal  temperature  for  developing  solutions 
is  between  60°  and  70°  Fahr.,  although  in  summer,  or  in 
tropical  countries,  the  temperature  should  not  be  over  60°. 
When  the  developer  is  warm  it  works  rapidly  and  produces 
a  coarse  grain  on  the  film.  When  cold  it  acts  slowly; 
therefore,  to  obtain  uniform  results  it  is  necessary  to  have 
some  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  temperature  and  the  speed 
of  the  developer  before  attempting  to  develop. 

251.  When  prepared  developing  powders  are  used 
carefully  follow  the  manufacturer's  directions  for  preparing 
the  solution.  It  is  very  important  to  have  the  developer 
mixed  in  exactly  proper  proportions  each  time. 

252.  A  separate  hypo  dish  should  be  provided  for 
fixing  the  films.  In  the  absence  of  a  regular  fixing  box  it 
is  advisable  to  employ  a  shallow  dish  of  good  size,  or  a 
small  pail.  Use  a  liberal  supply  of  solution  which  will 
cover  the  films  well. 

253.  Kodak  Film  Tank.--The  kodak  film  tank  is  well 
constructed,  and  is  made  in  different  sizes,  accommodating 
films  from  the  "Brownie"  up  to  a  7-inch  spool.  For  a 
number  of  years  kodak  developing  machines  held  a  very 
important  position  in  the  amateur's  outfit.  With  the  ad- 
vent of  tank  development  the  machines  have  given  place 
to  the  kodak  film  tank.  This  tank  is  not  an  experiment, 
for  it  is  being  used  and  enthusiastically  endorsed  by  ama- 
teur and  professional  photographers  the  world  over.  Nega- 
tives of  high  average  quality  and  uniformity  are  obtained 
by  means  of  the  tank.  Furthermore,  it  is  very  conven- 
ient and  affords  the  simplest  means  of  developing  the  roll 


1 50  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

film.  Every  step  of  the  work  may  be  performed  in  day- 
light, and  the  entire  operation  is  so  simple  as  to  be  readily 
understood  by  the  merest  novice. 

254.  The  kodak  film  outfit  consists  of  a  winding  box 
and  a  developing  cup.  The  film,  after  exposure,  is  protected 
from  light  by  being  first  wound  upon  a  light  proof  apron, 
after  which  it  is  removed  from  the  winding  box  and  placed 
in  a  cup  of  developer  until  the  development  is  completed. 
By  reference  to  Illustration  No.  28  you  will  observe  that 
the  apron,  black  paper  and  film  are  wound  on  axle  D,  and 
when  so  wound  are  at  once  removed  from  the  box  and 
placed  in  the  solution  cup — this  is  done  in  the  light  of  an 
ordinary  room.  Development  is  allowed  to  go  on  for  twen- 
ty minutes,  and  the  film  requires  no  attention  during  that 
time  beyond  turning  the  cup  containing  the  film,  end  for 
end,  three  or  four  times  during  development — a  tightly  fit- 
ting cover  for  the  cup  being  provided  for  this  purpose. 
(In  case  of  the  Brownie  film  tank  the  film  roll  itself  is 
turned.) 

255.  When  development  is  completed  the  solution  is 
poured  off  and  the  cup  filled  with  water  to  wash  out  the 
developer.  The  water  should  be  changed  several  times. 
After  a  few  minutes  of  general  rinsing  in  this  way  the  film 
is  ready  for  fixing.  If  the  developer  is  well  rinsed  out  the 
film  may  be  taken  from  the  apron  and  placed  in  a  separate 
fixing  bath.  This  process  of  fixing  can  be  carried  on  in 
subdued  daylight — the  light  of  an  ordinary  room  will  do  no 
harm. 

256.  If  desired  the  fixing  may  be  carried  on  in  the 
same  tank  that  was  used  for  developing,  by  allowing  the 
film  to  remain  in  the  apron  and  fill  the  tank  with  hypo 


Tank  Developing  for  Films.  151 

solution  and  fix  for  twenty  minutes,  inverting  the  tank  every 
five  minutes  to  insure  thorough  fixing.  The  method  neces- 
sitates thorough  cleansing  of  the  apron  reel  and  tank  after 
each  operation,  and  while  it  is  all  right  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency, yet  we  consider  it  best  to  fix  the  film  in  a  separate 
vessel. 

257.  With  the  kodak  film  tank  one  can  develop  a 
number  of  rolls  of  film  at  once,  by  merely  providing  oneself 
with  extra  tanks,  aprons  and  reels.  The  one  winding  box 
will  answer  for  any  number  of  films. 

Important. — Until  perfectly  familiar  with  its  operation, 
it  is  advisable  for  the  novice  to  work  the  winding  box  a 
few  times  without  any  film  in  it,  and  with  the  cover 
removed. 

258.  Premo  Cut-Film  Developing  Tank.— The  Premo 
Cut-Film  Developing  Tank  is  the  latest  application  of  the 
tank  principle.  The  Premo  tank  provides  for  the  develop- 
ment of  cut-films,  or  the  films  from  the  film-pack,  with  a 
minimum  of  care  and  labor,  and  the  assurance  of  uniform 
results.  The  Premo  Film  Tank,  unlike  the  Kodak  Roll  Film 
Tank,  must  be  loaded  in  the  dark,  but  development  may 
be  carried  on  in  daylight. 

259.  The  Premo  tank  consists  essentially  of  two 
pieces — a  metal  receiver  or  frame  for  holding  the  films, 
and  a  tank  with  cover  for  the  developing  solution.  The 
receiver  is  divided  into  twelve  compartments,  in  all  sizes 
except  the  5x7  size,  which  has  but  six,  each  compartment 
accommodating  one  film.  As  the  film  is  taken  from  the 
pack  it  is  held  between  the  thumb  and  fingers,  slightly 
curved  from  top  to  bottom,  and  slipped  into  its  respective 
compartment.     (See  Illustration  No.  29.)     When  all  com- 


1 52  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

partments  are  filled  the  receiver  is  placed  in  the  tank,  which 
has  been  previously  filled  with  the  developer.  The  top  is 
then  replaced  and  the  films  are  left  to  develop  for  a  certain 
specified  time.  No  further  attention  is  necessary,  excepting 
to  turn  the  tank,  end  for  end,  three  or  four  times  during 
development.  At  the  expiration  of  the  full  time  open  the 
tank,  take  out  the  receiver,  remove  the  films,  place  them  in 
a  tray  of  water  for  a  moment,  then  transfer  to  the  fixing 
bath.  When  the  development  is  completed  rinse  out  re- 
ceiver and  tank,  and  set  them  aside  to  dry.  If  desired, 
films  may  be  fixed  in  the  same  tank  in  which  they  were 
developed,  but  this  is  not  recommended. 

260.  Note. — The  operation  of  removing  films  from 
the  pack  and  loading  the  receiver  is  done  in  a  darkened 
room,  by  the  light  of  a  ruby  lamp.  During  the  day  any 
darkened  closet  will  suffice.  To  place  the  film  in  the  re- 
ceiver will  require  only  two  or  three  minutes,  and  as  soon  as 
the  top  is  placed  on  the  tank  it  may  be  brought  out  into 
any  light  and  left  until  development  is  completed. 

261.  It  is  very  seldom  that  films  can  be  developed  and 
prints  made  from  them  the  same  day;  therefore,  as  the 
majority  of  amateur  photographers  find  it  more  convenient 
to  develop  at  night,  we  would  suggest  night  time  as  being 
particularly  appropriate.  Any  room  can  then  be  made 
perfectly  dark  and  may  be  employed  for  loading  the  tank, 
after  which  the  developing  may  be  carried  on  in  a  lighted 
room. 

262.  If  desired  to  develop  less  than  a  dozen  films,  one 
merely  removes  from  his  pack  those  films  that  have  been 
exposed,  and  places  them  in  the  receiver  as  previously  de- 
scribed. 


Tank  Developing  for  Films.  1 53 

263.  Developers  for  Kodak  Film  Tank.— The  tank  de- 
veloping powders  will  be  found  very  convenient  to  use  for 
either  the  film  or  the  plate  tank.  These  powders  are  com- 
pounded in  accurate  quantities,  to  be  dissolved  in  a  given 
amount  of  water.  The  powders  are  supplied  in  different 
size  packages,  so  it  is  possible  to  make  either  a  large  or 
small  bulk  of  solution  to  suit  the  size  tank  employed.  For 
amateurs  who  prefer  to  make  up  their  own  solutions,  the 
formula  given  in  paragraph  504,  Chapter  XIX,  of  Volume 
II,  of  this  library,  will  give  excellent  results  in  the  tanks 
herein  described,  with  a  twenty-minute  developer. 

264.  Fixing. — The  prepared  acid  fixing  powders  may 
be  employed  if  desired,  or  one  can  make  up  his  own  solution 
according  to  formula  given  in  this  chapter. 

265.  The  bath  should  be  prepared  in  a  large  jar,  being 
certain  that  all  of  the  chemicals  are  completely  dissolved. 
When  ready  for  fixing,  pour  into  the  tank  or  vessel  used 
for  fixing  sufficient  of  the  solution  to  completely  cover 
the  films.  A  liberal  quantity  should  always  be  used.  When 
films  are  fixed  the  bath  may  be  returned  to  the  original  jar 
and  saved  for  the  next  fixing.  The  fixing  bath  may  be  used 
over  and  over  again,  so  long  as  it  fixes  the  films  in  a  reason- 
able time,  or  until  it  becomes  discolored  and  shows  signs  of 
staining  the  film,  when  it  should  be  discarded  and  replaced 
with  a  new  bath.  Do  not  over-work  the  fixing  bath.  While 
films  should  be  completely  fixed  in  ten  minutes — i.  e.,  all 
the  free  silver  removed,  yet  it  is  advisable  to  allow  the  film 
to  remain  in  the  bath  for  twenty  minutes;  the  extra  ten 
minutes  will  do  no  harm  and  will  insure  thorough  fixing. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Preparing  Chemicals:    Developing  with  Pyro. 

266.  Good  results  can  be  produced  with  the  ready 
prepared  powders  and  solutions,  and  for  the  beginner's  first 
experiments  they  are  recommended,  as  he  will,  without 
doubt,  secure  better  results  with  them.  However,  the  ex- 
perience gained  from  the  preceding  instruction  will  enable 
you  to  readily  recognize  the  necessity  of  knowing  the  action 
of  the  different  chemicals  employed  and  the  manner  of 
preparing  the  various  ingredients  for  the  developing  solu- 
tions. The  following  instruction  is,  therefore,  given,  not 
alone  that  you  may  learn  how  to  prepare  these  solutions, 
but  the  experience  you  will  gain  thereby  will  prepare  you 
for  the  more  advanced  instruction  in  Volume  II. 

267.  Don't  measure  your  sodas  by  weight;  use  the 
hydrometer  for  testing  them  and  you  will  always  have  uni- 
form results.  A  hydrometer  can  be  procured  from  any 
dealer  in  photographic  supplies.  If  sodas  in  crystal  form 
should  dry  to  a  powder,  by  exposure  to  air,  or  vice  versa, 
the  weight  would  be  altered,  although  the  strength  of  the 
original  quantity  would  remain  the  same.  Consequently 
a  solution  made  by  dissolving  1  oz.  of  the  dry  powder 
would  be  stronger  than  that  made  by  dissolving  1  oz.  of 
crystals  in  the  same  quantity  of  water.  Also  sodas  of  dif- 
ferent brands,  and  even  of  the  same  brand,  but  procured  at 
different  times,  are  seldom  of  uniform  strength.    So  if  used 

(ISS) 


156 


Library  of  Practical  Photography. 


by  weight  instead  of  hydrometer  you  will  be  apt  to  meet 
with  frequent  failures. 

268.  Hydrometer. — The  hydrometer  used  in  photog- 
raphy is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  number  of  grains 
of  a  certain  chemical  in  an  ounce  of  water.  The  instrument 
consists  of  a  glass  tube,  near  the  bottom  of  which  are  two 
bulbs.  The  upper  bulb  is  filled  with  air,  the  amount  of 
which  is  sufficient  to  make  the  whole  instrument  lighter 


IlltiBtratlon  No.  30. 


than  an  equal  volume  of  water.  The  lower  and  smaller 
bulb  is  loaded  with  mercury,  in  order  that  the  instrument 
may  remain  in  a  vertical  position  when  placed  into  the 
liquid  to  be  tested.     (See  Illustration  No.  30.) 

269.  The  point  to  which  the  hydrometer  sinks  when 
placed  in  clear  water  is  marked  zero,  the  tube  being  gradu- 
ated below  this  point  in  such  a  manner  that  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  liquid  can  be  read.     The  specific  gravity 


Preparing  Chemicals:    Developing  with  P^ro.       1 57 

of  a  body  is  the  proportion  between  its  weight  and  the 
weight  of  a  like  volume  of  pure  water. 

270.  How  to  Compound  a  Formula. — First,  be  sure 
that  your  graduates,  stirring  rods,  and  any  receptacles  you 
may  use  are  perfectly  clean.  (For  methods  of  cleaning 
glassware  we  refer  you  to  the  Glossary,  Volume  X.)  The 
water  you  use  should  not  be  taken  fresh  from  the  tap,  but 
should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  some  little  while,  to  permit 
the  air  to  escape.  If  scales  are  used  for  weighing  out  the 
chemicals,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are  perfectly  clean 
and  work  accurately.  Always  add  the  chemicals  one  to  the 
other  in  the  sequence  given  in  the  formula,  and  see  that  one 
chemical  is  thoroughly  dissolved  before  adding  another. 
Keep  the  chemicals  you  use  always  in  tightly  corked  bottles' 
or  tins,  and  be  careful  to  label  all  your  bottles  so  that  you 
should  not,  by  accident,  get  hold  of  the  wrong  solutions. 

271.  Formula  for  Developing  with  Pyrogallic  Acid. — 

Stock  Solution  No.  i. 

Water    24  ounces 

Pyro     I  ounce 

Sulphuric  Acid  5  drops 

Stock  Solution  No.  2, 
Sulphite  of  Soda   (Anhydrous)   Hydrometer  test  70,  or  if  by 
weight, 

Sulphite  of  Soda  (Anhydrous)  i  ounce 

Water    8  ounces 

Stock  Solution  No.  3. 
Carbonate  of  Soda,  Hydrometer  test  40,  or  if  by  weight, 

Carbonate  of  Soda  (Anhydrous) l  ounce 

Water    10  ounces 

//  crystal  sodas  are  used  you  will  require  2  02s.  in  place 
of  I  02.  anhydrous,  as  the  anhydrous  is  twice  as  strong  as  the 
crystals. 


1 58  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

We  advise  the  use  of  the  very  best  sodas.  Do  not  buy 
the  commercial  brands. 

To  prepare  this  formula,  first  place  24  ozs.  of  water  in 
your  graduate;  add  the  pyro,  dissolving  it  thoroughly; 
then  the  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  should  be  added  by  holding 
the  acid  bottle  in  your  right  hand,  with  the  little  finger  at 
the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  Withdraw  the  stopper  and  hold 
your  stirring  rod  to  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  which  will 
allow  you  to  measure  out  the  5  drops  very  carefully. 

272.  To  develop,  take  1  oz.  of  No.  1;  1  oz.  of  No.  2; 
1  oz.  of  No.  3,  and  add  6  ozs.  of  pure  water  in  winter,  and 
8  ounces  in  summer.  If  your  plates  develop  a  yellow  color, 
strengthen  the  sulphite,  if  there  is  a  lack  of  color  and  the 
plate  is  a  blue-gray,  reduce  the  strength  of  your  Sulphite 
Stock  Solution,  but  use  the  same  quantity. 

273.  Always  bear  in  mind  that  sulphite  of  soda  regu- 
lates the  color  value  of  the  plate;  carbonate  of  soda  gives 
detail ;  and  pyro^  being  the  developing  agent,  gives  strength 
and  contrast. 

274.  If  your  negatives  are  yellow  the  sulphite  is  not 
strong  enough.  For  instance,  if  you  are  using  sulphite  at 
70  hydrometer  test,  then  you  must  strengthen  it  to  perhaps 
80  test,  all  other  chemicals  remaining  as  they  are.  The 
color  of  the  negative  is  regulated  entirely  by  the  strength 
of  sulphite  of  soda.  It  will  seldom,  if  ever,  be  necessary  to 
change  the  strength  of  the  carbonate  of  soda. 

275.  Pyro,  which  is  the  developing  agent,  is  used  to 
produce  strength  (density).  If  your  plates  develop  up  con- 
trasty,  use  less  of  No.  1  (the  Pyro  Stock).  This  developer 
will  work  well  with  any  brand  of  plates  by  following  the 
above  directions.    If  you  are  using  a  brand  of  plates  that 


Preparing  Chemicals:     Developing  with  Pyro.      1 59 

will  build  up  (strengthen)  quickly,  use  more  water.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  you  cannot  obtain  the  desired  strength,  re- 
duce the  amount  of  water,  thus  making  the  developer 
stronger. 

276.  For  Seed,  Standard  and  Stanley  plates,  also  films, 
use  according  to  formula;  for  Cramer  plates,  use  10  drams 
of  pyro  and  9  ozs.  of  water;  for  Hammer  plates  use  only 
6  drams  of  pyro  and  8  ozs.  of  water,  the  sodas  remaining  the 
same  for  all  plates. 

277.  Fixing  Bath. — For  fixing  bath  use  plain  hypo 
and  water  (4  ozs.  hypo  to  1  pt.  of  water),  and  during  hot 
weather  keep  the  bath  cool.  Allow  plates  to  remain  in  this 
bath  about  20  minutes,  or  about  10  minutes  after  all  white- 
ness (bromide  of  silver)  has  disappeared.  Should  the 
plates  show  a  tendency  to  frill  in  hot  weather,  prepare  a 
hardening  bath  composed  of  ^  oz.  of  ground  alum  to  1  pt.  of 
water,  and  immerse  plates  in  same  for  two  minutes,  after 
fixing,  and  then  transfer  them  to  a  washing  box  and  wash 
for  at  least  thirty  minutes. 

278.  GENERAL  NOTES. 

Pyro. — Too  much  pyro  clogs  the  whites.  Too  little  Pyro 
slows  development;   gives  lack  of  brilliancy. 

Alkali. — Too  much  alkali — Quick  development ;  flat  nega- 
tives; foggy  and  granular.  Too  little  alkali — Slow  develop- 
ment; contrast. 

Sulphite. — Too  much  sulphite — Cold-gray  tone.  Too 
little  sulphite — Warmer  tone,  inclined  toward  yellow. 

Water. — Too  much  water — Thin  high-lights;  plenty  of 
detail,  but  lack  of  snap  and  strength.  Too  little  water — More 
contrast. 


160  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Temperature. — Normal,  65°  to  70°  Fahr.  Higher  tent' 
perature — Intensity  and  likely  fog.  Lower  temperature — Flat- 
ness, lack  of  snap. 

279.  Drying  Negatives. — The  warmer  and  closer  the 
atmosphere  in  which  the  negative  is  dried,  the  more  dense 
it  becomes.  Whenever  possible,  negatives  should  be  dried 
with  an  electric  fan,  or  in  a  current  of  air,  as  the  quicker 
they  dry  (within  limit — say  within  a  few  hours)  the  finer 
the  grain  will  be. 

280.  Developing. — All  plates  you  believe  to  be  prop- 
erly exposed  should  be  started  in  a  normal  developer.  A 
correctly  exposed  plate  can  be  completely  developed  with 
the  formula  for  normal  developer  given  in  this  instruction 
without  any  alteration  whatsoever.  It  is  advisable  to  always 
save  the  last  developer  used,  pouring  it  into  a  large  mouthed 
bottle  and  placing  a  cover  over  the  bottle  to  protect  it  from 
dust.  It  is  also  well  to  use  two  trays  when  developing. 
Into  one  tray  decant  the  clear  solution  of  the  old,  or  pre- 
viously used,  developer,  adding  one-third  fresh  stock  solu- 
tion thereto;  use  the  other  tray  for  normal  developer. 

281.  Restraining  Development. — If  a  plate  flashes  up 
quickly,  indicating  over-exposure,  place  it  in  the  tray  of  old 
developer  at  once,  rocking  the  tray  quickly  so  that  the  bro- 
mide in  the  old  developer,  liberated  from  the  emulsion  of 
the  plates  previously  developed,  will  penetrate  the  plate  at 
once  and  check  development.  The  bromide  has  a  restrain- 
ing action  upon  the  shadows,  but  does  not  materially  affect 
the  action  of  the  developing  agent  upon  the  high-lights, 
thereby  permitting  the  developer  to  continue  and  produce 
the  required  contrast.  Unless  plates  are  very  much  over-  | 
timed,  we  advise  using  no  other  means  of  restraining  than 


Preparing  Chemicals:  Developing  with  Pyro.         161 

those  described  above.  It  is  well  after  a  plate  has  been 
developing  in  the  old  developer  for  some  time,  to  place  it  in 
fresh  developer,  in  order  to  give  snap  and  more  crispness, 
always  being  careful  to  rock  the  tray. 

282.  Developing  Under-Exposures. — In  case  the  image 
appears  slowly  and  with  contrast,  you  will  readily  under- 
stand that  the  plate  is  undertimed.  Then  immediately  place 
it  in  a  tray  of  plain  water.  Cover  the  tray  and  allow  the 
plate  to  remain  for,  say  ten  minutes;  then  conclude  devel- 
oping in  normal  developer.  If  the  plate  shows  signs  of  ex- 
treme under-timing,  make  a  new  developer,  weak  in  pyro 
(using  only  one-half  the  regular  quantity),  the  regular 
amount  of  sulphite  and  carbonate  of  soda  and  double  the 
amount  of  water.  Conclude  the  developing  in  this  bath 
instead  of  with  normal  developer.  The  resulting  plate  will 
be  clear  in  detail,  with  no  harsh  high-lights. 

283.  When  Is  a  Plate  Developed?— The  greatest  diffi- 
culty in  developing  a  plate  is  to  know  just  when  to  stop. 
Conditions  have  so  much  to  do  with  the  proper  developing 
of  a  plate,  that  it  is  hard  to  state  exactly  how  to  tell,  under 
all  circumstances,  when  to  stop  developing.  A  properly 
timed  plate  is  completely  developed,  and  carried  far  enough, 
when  the  contrast  between  the  high-lights  and  shadows  is 
as  you  would  desire  it,  and  as  they  appeared  on  the  ground- 
glass,  taking  into  consideration  that  the  plate  loses  some  of 
its  strength  in  fixing. 

284.  Some  brands  of  plates  fix  out  more  than  others. 
For  instance.  Seed  plates  will  lose  about  two  degrees  in  the 
hypo  bath,  while  others  will  lose  about  one  shade  of  density ; 
therefore,  when  judging  if  the  plate  is  sufficiently  dense, 
you  must  bear  in  mind  the  brand  of  plate  and  develop  ac- 


1 62  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

cordingly.  In  examining  an  over  or  under-timed  plate,  you 
must  judge  it  for  the  same  results  as  one  properly  timed, 
taking  into  consideration  whatever  effect  the  over-timing 
or  irregular  conditions  may  have  upon  it.  Should  the  plate 
be  slightly  over-timed  it  will  thicken  up  more  rapidly,  but 
must  be  carried  further  in  the  developer  until  the  desired 
contrast,  even  in  a  very  dense  plate,  is  visible.  If  the  plate 
has  an  even  density  throughout,  when  fixed,  while  it  may 
be  strong,  it  will  lack  the  necessary  contrast.  So  it  must 
be  carried  far  enough  to  produce  this  result,  and  stopped 
there. 

285.  After  looking  through  your  plate,  if  you  are  in 
doubt  as  to  whether  the  proper  density  has  been  obtained, 
by  looking  at  the  back  for  the  image,  you  can  see  how  far 
through  the  film  the  developer  has  penetrated.  If,  upon  ex- 
amination, you  find  the  proper  contrast,  and  the  image  is 
fairly  clear  on  the  back,  your  plate  is  sufficiently  developed. 

286.  Do  not  depend  entirely  by  the  appearance  on  the 
back,  for  in  some  cases  plates  will  be  fully  developed  before 
the  image  appears  on  the  back  at  all,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  emulsion,  which  varies  in  different  brands,  and 
also  to  the  length  of  exposure.  In  a  plate  that  is  slightly 
under-timed,  necessitating  weak,  prolonged  development, 
which  enables  the  developer  to  penetrate  the  film  more 
deeply,  the  image  will  appear  more  distinctly  on  the  back 
than  in  a  normal  exposure  in  which  the  action  of  the  devel- 
oper is  more  on  the  surface  and  the  image  shows  very  dimly, 
or  not  at  all,  even  when  completely  developed. 

287.  You  will  notice  that  the  high-lights  show  through 
first,  and  if  in  looking  through  the  plate  the  shadows  appear 
weak,  continue  development  until  they  show  on  the  back. 


Preparing  Chemicals:  Developing  with  Pyro.       1 63 

In  the  case  of  a  double-coated  plate,  fully  timed,  the  high- 
lights at  least  should  show  on  the  back ;  if  not,  the  coating 
being  double,  the  appearance  when  looking  through  the 
negative  to  the  ruby  light  will  be  more  dense  than  it  really 
is,  and  if  developed  only  as  far  as  an  ordinary  plate  it  would 
be  very  thin  when  fixed. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
General  Hints  on  Development. 

288.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  place  the  plate  in  water 
before  development,  nor  to  first  pour  the  developer  into  a 
dish  and  then  drop  the  plate  into  it.  Both  of  these  proceed- 
ings tend  to  cause  the  formation  of  air  bubbles  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  film;  these  adhere  to  the  film,  and,  when  once 
formed,  are  very  difficult  to  get  rid  of,  even  when  a  brush  is 
used.  Where  these  formations  occur  on  the  film  the  devel- 
oper cannot  act,  and  thus  an  undeveloped  spot  is  left,  which 
fixes  out  in  the  hypo  bath,  leaving  a  clear,  round  spot  or 
hole.  Lay  the  dry  plate  (film  side  uppermost)  in  a  dry  dish, 
and  then  pour  the  developer  over  it  in  one  sweep,  so  as  to 
cover  the  plate  all  over  with  it  at  once.  If  a  portion  of  the 
plate  be  left  uncovered,  even  for  only  a  few  seconds,  there 
will  probably  be  a  mark  on  the  finished  negative.  In  order 
to  avoid  this  danger  use  plenty  of  developer.  Rock  the  dish 
during  development,  constantly  and  in  both  directions.  The 
object  of  this  is  two-fold.  In  the  first  place,  it  has  a  great 
influence  on  the  vigor  and  brilliancy  of  the  negative,  because 
the  action  of  the  developer  releases  bromine  from  the  silver 
bromide  of  the  plate,  which  bromine  immediately  combines 
with  the  alkali,  forming  a  bromide. 

289.  Now,  bromide  acts  as  a  restrainer — i.  e.,  holds 
back  development — and  this  additional  bromide,  if  not  distrib- 
uted by  rocking,  remains  in  the  developer  at  the  place  where 
formed,  so  that  the  development  at  that  part  of  the  plate  is 

(165) 


166  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

additionally  restrained.  It  will  be  easily  seen  that  the  most 
bromide  will  be  formed  and  the  greatest  restraining  action 
will  result  just  at  those  places  where  action  ought  to  be 
most  vigorous.  Less  bromide  will  be  formed  in  the  less  ex- 
posed parts.  The  latter  will,  therefore,  develop  more  and 
the  former  less  than  they  should,  producing  less  contrast — 
flatness — in  the  resulting  negative.  Another  result  of  rock- 
ing is  to  prevent  a  mottled  appearance,  which  often  shows 
itself  when  developer  is  not  kept  in  motion.  Do  not  fix  the 
plate  as  soon  as  you  see  enough  detail,  but  give  enough 
time  to  acquire  density  also.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult 
thing  in  development  to  judge  when  the  image  is  dense 
enough,  and  such  knowledege  can  only  be  acquired  by  ex- 
perience with  the  particular  brand  of  plates  employed. 

290.  No  two  developing  agents  are  alike  in  their  re- 
sults. Pyrogallic  Acid,  Eikonogen,  Metol,  Pyrocatechin  and 
Hydroquinon,  or  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these,  are 
the  developers  generally  used.  The  conditions  under  which 
individuals  must  work  are  so  varied  that  no  one  particular 
formula  can  be  applicable  to  all.  When  strong,  vigorous 
printing  negatives  are  desired,  pyrogallic  acid,  in  combina- 
tion with  either  carbonate  of  soda  or  carbonate  of  potash, 
is  generally  preferred ;  although  by  dilution  and  modification 
as  much  softness  and  detail  can  be  produced  with  this  as 
with  any  other  developing  agent.  Quick  development  with 
strong  solutions  means  a  lack  of  gradation,  a  forcing  up  of 
the  high-lights  before  the  developer  has  time  to  act  on  the 
less  exposed  parts.  Good  results  can  be  obtained  only  by 
slowly  coaxing  out  the  detail,  so  that  all  parts  of  the  image  J 
come  up  fairly  together. 

291.  A  developer  containing  too  much  alkali  (carbonate 


General  Hints  on  Development  1 67 

of  soda  or  potash)  will  cause  flat,  foggy  negatives.  All  de- 
velopers should  be  carefully  filtered  before  use.  Consider- 
able care  must  be  exercised  if  several  plates  are  developed 
together  in  a  large  tray,  the  edges  are  liable  to  strike  to- 
gether, detaching  small  chips  of  glass,  which  adhere  to  the 
soft  gelatin  surface,  and  thus  cause  pin-holes.  Keep  the 
plates  separated  by  little  strips  of  wood,  tightly  fitted  to  the 
bottom  of  your  tray. 

292.  Temperature  of  Developer. — The  temperature  of 
developer  has  considerable  influence  on  its  action.  As  a 
general  rule  from  60°  to  65°  is  best.  Above  this,  surface 
action  becomes  too  rapid,  and  is  therefore  apt  to  produce 
flatness  and  fog  before  the  lower  layers  of  film  are  sufficient- 
ly penetrated  and  acted  on  to  produce  the  required  density 
and  contrast.  Very  cold  developer,  on  the  other  hand,  gives 
clear  negatives,  but  they  are  likely  to  be  insufficiently  devel- 
oped, as  cold  developers  act  very  slowly,  giving  the  impres- 
sion that  the  plate  is  at  fault,  and  leading  one  to  complain 
to  the  plate-maker,  which  would  have  been  unnecessary  had 
the  temperature  been  raised  a  little.  Temper  the  developer 
with  a  little  hot  water  in  winter  and  a  little  ice  in  summer. 

293.  Suggestions  for  the  Beginner. — On  developing, 
pour  the  developer  over  the  plate  by  running  the  graduate 
along  the  side  of  the  dish  so  as  to  propel  a  wave  of  the  so- 
lution across  the  plate  and  avoid  patches  and  streaks  caused 
by  quick  acting  developers  when  they  are  not  properly 
applied. 

If  the  dish  is  not  rocked  occasionally  during  develop- 
ment, there  will  be  a  mottling  all  over  the  film.  Pyro  is 
more  likely  to  give  this  effect  than  others.  There  is  no 
remedy;  prevention  is  easy. 


1 68  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Patches  of  fog  may  come  from  fingers  or  thumb  that 
are  contaminated  with  hypo.  Keep  every  trace  of  hypo  out 
of  the  developer  and  off  the  plates  until  after  development 
is  complete  and  the  plate  rinsed. 

294.  Drying  the  Negatives. — Plates  are  best  dried  in  a 
moderately  warm  room,  the  temperature  of  which  should 
not  vary  much,  with  good  ventilation.  They  should  not  be 
placed  too  close  together.  A  plate  must  never  be  laid  in  the 
sunlight  to  dry,  as  this  may  melt  the  film,  cause  transparent 
holes,  and,  if  nothing  worse,  will  increase  the  intensity.  In 
cold  weather  do  not  allow  the  negative  to  get  too  cold  while 
drying;  this  not  only  retards  the  drying,  but  in  case  the 
moisture  therein  should  freeze,  it  would  cause  mottled 
spots.  If  the  negative  is  partly  dry  and  then  removed  to 
another  room  which  is  much  warmer  or  colder,  it  will  cause 
a  difference  in  the  density  of  the  part  to  dry  last.  If  a 
negative  is  wanted  in  a  hurry,  it  may  be  quickly  dried 
by  laying  it  for  ten  minutes  (after  thoroughly  washing)  in  a 
bath  of  alcohol,  when  it  will  dry  rapidly.  If  dried  in  this 
way  the  negative  must  first  be  very  thoroughly  washed, 
for  if  any  hypo  be  left  in  the  film  an  insoluble  white  deposit 
may  be  formed,  which  cannot  afterwards  be  removed. 

295.  If  a  plate,  after  being  in  the  hypo,  is  only  rinsed 
and  allowed  to  stand  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time,  it  will 
lose  intensity  to  a  considerable  degree.  After  thorough  fix- 
ing, then  thoroughly  wash  the  negative. 

296.  Three  Good  Rules  which  will  greatly  help  to  in- 
sure clean  work : 

No.  1.  Always  keep  hypo  by  itself;  mix  it  only  in  its 
own  dishes,  and  always  wash  your  hands  before  touching 
anything  else. 


General  Hints  on  Development  1 69 

No.  2.  Always  rinse  the  tray,  no  matter  what  was  used 
in  it,  as  soon  as  you  are  through  with  it;  also  rinse  before 
use. 

No.  3.     Keep  your  workroom  clean. 

297.  Washing  After  Development. — In  all  cases  it  is 
desirable  to  wash  the  plate  for  at  least  a  minute  before  fix- 
ing it. 

298.  Under-Exposure. — An  under-exposed  plate  has 
usually  a  lack  of  detail  in  the  shadows  and  weakly  lighted 
parts,  with  too  much  tendency  to  density  in  the  strongly 
lighted  portions.  To  counteract  this  as  much  as  possible, 
it  is  best  to  remove  the  plate  from  the  normal  developer  as 
soon  as  its  condition  is  known,  and,  without  washing,  place 
it  in  a  tray  of  water  where  no  light  of  any  kind  can  reach 
it.  If  this  treatment  in  2  or  3  minutes  brings  out  the  detail 
of  the  shadows  where  there  has  been  but  little  action  of 
light,  it  may  then  be  developed  in  normal  developer  in  a 
dark  place.  No  plate  much  under-exposed  ever  gives  a  sat- 
isfactory result.  It  is  no  use  to  employ  a  large  excess  of 
alkali  with  the  idea  of  "forcing"  out  the  detail,  for  such  pro- 
ceedings will  only  result  in  fog  and  stain. 

299.  Plates  or  films  which  are  under-exposed  will  de- 
velop slowly,  and  the  developed  negative  will  be  thin  and 
transparent  in  the  shadows.  If  upon  developing  a  plate  an 
image  fails  to  appear,  the  cause  may  be  attributed  to  one 
of  five  things: 

The  slide  of  the  holder  was  not  withdrawn. 

The  shutter  failed  to  open. 

The  plate  was  not  in  the  holder. 

The  developing  solution  lacked  an  essential  constituent. 


170  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

The  exposure  was  too  short  to  give  even  the  ghost  of 
an  image. 

300.  Under-Development. — This  is  caused  by  remov- 
ing from  the  developer  too  soon.  The  difference  between  a 
correctly  exposed  under-developed  plate  and  an  under-expos- 
ure is,  that  the  entire  plate  of  the  former  is  thin  and  full  of 
detail,  instead  of  strong  in  the  high-lights  and  thin  in  the 
shadows,  as  is  the  case  with  an  under-exposure.  The  under- 
developed plate  can  be  improved  after  fixing  and  washing 
by  redeveloping,  or  in  other  words,  by  intensifying.  (See 
instructions  for  Intensifying.) 

301.  Over- Exposure. — An  over-exposed  plate  is  flat, 
wanting  in  contrast,  full  of  detail  but  lacking  in  intensity 
in  the  high-lights,  or  foggy.  Where  over-exposure  has 
occurred  the  image  appears  almost  instantly  after  placing 
the  plate  or  film  in  the  developing  solution,  and  the  entire 
image  develops  at  the  same  time — the  shadows  as  fast  as  the 
high-lights — there  being  no  contrast,  no  visible  high-lights 
nor  deep  shadows.  Over-exposure  can  be  overcome,  to  a 
certain  extent,  if,  as  soon  as  a  negative  shows  signs  of  over- 
exposure, as  described  above,  you  add  a  few  drops  of  bro- 
mide of  potassium  solution  to  the  developer;  this  will  re- 
strain the  development.  Of  course,  the  negative  must  be 
removed  from  the  bath  while  adding  the  bromide.  Mix  the 
bromide  well  with  the  developer,  then  return  the  plate  again 
to  the  developing  bath  and  conclude  the  development.  If 
a  plate  is  known  to  be  considerably  over-exposed,  commence 
with  a  developer  containing  a  full  dose  of  pyro  and  some 
bromide,  but  very  little  of  the  alkali,  and  then  small  quan- 
tities of  the  alkali  may  be  added  from  time  to  time  as  the 
development  progresses. 


General  Hints  on  Development  173 

302.  Preparing  a  Bromide  Solution. — Into  a  bottle 
pour  9  ozs.  of  water,  and  to  this  add  1  oz,  bromide  of  potas- 
sium. Shake  until  dissolved.  With  a  pocket  knife,  cut  a 
thin  notch  the  entire  length  of  the  cork  stopper  and  insert 
the  cork  tightly.  When  you  want  to  add  a  few  drops  of 
bromide  turn  the  bottle  upside  down  and  the  notch  in  the 
cork  stopper  will  permit  the  solution  to  drop,  one  drop  at 
a  time.  Any  time  that  a  negative  flashes  up  too  quickly, 
indicating  over-exposure,  a  few  drops  of  bromide  should  at 
once  be  added,  as  the  bromide  acts  as  a  restrainer  and  pre- 
vents the  shadows  from  developing,  thus  enabling  the  high- 
lights to  build  up  and  thereby  supply  the  necessary  contrast. 
Negatives  that  are  treated  in  this  way,  or  rather  negatives 
that  are  over-timed  and  treated  in  this  way,  should  be  de- 
veloped farther  (thicker)  than  normal  exposures;  and  after 
thorough  fixing  they  can  be  reduced.  (See  instruction 
for  Reducing.) 

303.  Over-Development.  —  Over-developed  negatives 
are  those  which  have  been  left  in  the  developer  too  long. 
This  may  be  caused  by  accident,  lack  of  knowing  when  the 
plate  is  fully  developed,  or  it  may  be  caused  by  over-ex- 
posure where  you  purposely  over-developed  in  order  to  ob- 
tain detail,  snap,  and  contrast.  In  any  of  these  cases  you 
can  improve  the  printing  quality  of  the  negative  by  re- 
ducing. 

304.  (See  Illustration  31.)  Here  we  illustrate  the  ad- 
vantage of  reducing  strong,  thick  negatives — plates  that 
would  require  hours  for  printing  if  printing-out  paper  were 
used.  By  reducing,  the  plate  is  made  to  print  in  a  few 
minutes.    Note  the  contrast  between  the  half  of  the  plate 


1 74  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

that  has  been  reduced  and  that  which  has  not.  This  illus- 
tration should  serve  to  show  the  advantage  of  altering  nega- 
tives improperly  developed. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Intensifying  and  Reducing. 

305.  Inteniifying.-^The  intensifying  of  a  negative  is 
the  building  up  of  a  negative  which  is  thin  and  transparent 
— due  to  either  over-exposure  or  under-development — and 
making  it  more  opaque.  Any  amount  of  density  can  be 
obtained,  and  if  your  first  efforts  do  not  produce  the  desired 
strength  immerse  the  negative  again  in  the  intensifier  until 
the  desired  density  is  obtained. 

306.  (See  Illustration  32.)  In  this  illustration  we  dem- 
onstrate the  advantage  of  intensifying  thin,  flat  negatives — 
those  which  would  give  dull,  flat  prints  unless  strengthened. 
In  order  to  demonstrate  more  clearly  the  advantage  of  in- 
tensifying, we  have  intensified  only  half  of  the  plate,  leav- 
ing the  remainder  untouched.    Note  the  difference. 

307.  Intensifying  Powder. — For  the  convenience  of 
the  beginner  we  recommend  the  use  of  the  prepared  inten- 
sifying powders  or  solutions,  which  can  be  purchased  from 
any  dealer  in  photographic  supplies.  Instruction  for  the 
use  of  such  prepared  powders  accompany  each  package,  the 
usual  requirement  being  to  dissolve  so  much  of  the  powder 
in  so  much  water,  when  the  solution  is  ready  for  use.  The 
bottle  containing  intensifier  should  be  carefully  labeled 
"Intensifying  Stock  Solution,"  and  when  not  in  use  should 
be  kept  well  corked  and  placed  away  in  the  dark-room. 

(175) 


176  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

308.  This  solution  can  be  used  repeated  until  com- 
pletely exhausted.  It  is  advisable  to  use  only  a  portion  of 
the  solution  at  a  time,  sufficient  to  cover  the  negative  com- 
pletely— 3  ozs.  is  ample  for  a  4  x  5  plate.  After  the  negatives 
are  intensified  the  solution  should  be  returned  to  a  bottle 
labeled  "Intensifier  for  Use,"  and  always  use  from  this  bot- 
tle. Add  enough  of  the  fresh  stock  solution  from  time  to 
time  to  keep  the  bulk  to  about  3  ounces,  or  sufficient  to  com- 
pletely cover  the  plate. 

309.  Intensifying  the  Negative. — The  negative  to  be 
intensified  must  be  thoroughly  washed,  to  free  it  from  hypo, 
before  placing  in  the  intensifying  solution.  Simply  place 
the  negative  in  an  empty  tray  and  pour  over  it  sufficient 
intensifier  to  fully  cover  it,  and  allow  it  to  act  until  the 
surface  of  the  film  is  all  of  an  even  color,  rocking  the  tray 
gently  to  avoid  unevenness  and  streaks.  After  the  negative 
has  taken  on  the  required  density  pour  the  solution  back 
into  the  bottle  labeled  "Intensifier  for  Use;"  then  wash  the 
negative  for  about  fifteen  minutes  and  place  in  the  rack  to 
dry.  Should  the  beginner  desire  to  compound  his  own  in- 
tensifying solutions,  we  refer  him  to  Chapter  V,  Volume  II. 

310.  Reducing. — Reducing  is  the  treatment  of  strong, 
harsh,  thick  negatives  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them 
more  transparent,  thus  giving  them  a  better  printing  qual- 
ity. Negatives  that  take  hours  to  print  from  can  be  quickly 
reduced  to  the  correct  density  for  quick  printing  by  use  of 
the  reducing  powders.  These  powders,  which  can  be  pur- 
chased from  any  dealer,  are  very  convenient  for  the  beginner 
and  are,  therefore,  recommended.  The  best  time  for  reduc- 
ing a  negative  is  when  it  is  taken  from  the  fixing  bath.  If 
negatives  that  are  dry  are  to  be  reduced  they  should  be  first 


Intensifying  and  Reducing.  1 77 

placed  in  the  fixing  bath  for  a  few  minutes,  then  transferred 
to  the  reducer  until  reduced  to  the  desired  stage,  and  after- 
wards rinsed  and  washed  for  fifteen  minutes  and  dried  as 
usual. 

311.  Preparing  the  Solution. — To  prepare  a  reducing 
solution,  take  as  much  of  the  reducing  powder  as  is  called 
for  in  the  instructions,  and  dissolve  in  the  given  amount  of 
water.  Label  the  bottle  containing  the  solution  "Reducing 
Stock  Solution."  With  the  negative  carefully  washed,  place 
it  in  a  tray  containing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  reducer, 
and  leave  it  in  the  solution  until  the  density  has  been  re- 
duced to  the  required  extent.  This  can  be  judged  by  lifting 
the  negative  out  of  the  tray  occasionally  and  holding  it  to 
the  light.  Keep  the  tray  moving  during  the  action  of  the 
reducer,  to  avoid  uneven  reduction,  streaks,  spots,  etc. 
When  reduced  to  the  desired  stage  the  plate  should  be  at 
once  rinsed,  and  then  washed  for  15  minutes  in  running 
water,  and  dried  in  the  usual  way.  The  reducing  can  be 
done  in  daylight,  as  the  light  has  no  effect  upon  the  nega- 
tive, and  one  is  better  enabled  to  judge  the  results.  A  nega- 
tive that  has  been  previously  washed  and  dried  can  be  placed 
into  the  reducing  solution  without  again  washing  it.  The 
prepared  solution  is  usually  good  for  only  a  short  time,  and 
should  be  discarded  after  use. 

312,  Note:  As  advanced  instruction  for  reducing,  in- 
tensifying and  altering  negatives  is  given  in  Volume  II,  the 
instruction  given  herein  will  suffice  to  prepare  you  for  more 
advanced  work. 


Illustration  No.  31 

Advantage  of  Reducing  Thick  Negatives.     Half  of  Plate  Reduced. 

See  Paragraph  No.  304 


Illustration  No.  32 

Result  of  Intensifying   Ihin,  Flat  Negatives 

See  Paragraph  No.  306 


Illustration  No.  33 

Print  from  a  Correctly  Exposed  and  Developed  Negative 

See  Paragraph  No.  315 


Illustration  No.  34 

Negative  from  which  Illustration 33  was  Printed 

See  Paragraph  No.  315 


CHAPTER  XI. 
Appearance  of  Negatives  With  Different  Exposures. 

313.  In  order  to  give  a  more  perfect  idea  of  the  appear- 
ance of  negatives  when  incorrectly  exposed,  we  have  pre- 
pared a  series  of  illustrations  showing  a  negative  at  different 
stages. 

314.  Normal  Exposure. — To  illustrate  this  subject 
clearly,  we  have  selected  a  landscape  scene,  containing  not 
only  the  extremes  of  high-lights  and  shadows,  but  all  of  the 
intermediate  tones,  and  practically  every  degree  of  grada- 
tion. In  this  particular  picture  the  road  is  composed  of 
white  limestone,  which,  in  those  portions  receiving  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun,  reproduces  perfectly  white.  The  opposite 
extreme  will  be  found  in  the  shadow  of  the  tree  trunks, 
where  there  is  a  trifle  detail,  yet  the  negative  in  this  portion 
is  practically  clear.  The  bushes  and  the  small  trees  on  the 
further  side  of  the  fence  give  any  amount  of  tones;  while 
the  shadows  cast  on  the  road  by  the  branches  of  the  trees 
are  sufficiently  strong  to  demonstrate  the  errors  which  are 
very  likely  to  occur  upon  development. 

315.  In  Illustration  No.  33  is  illustrated  the  positive 
print  made  from  a  normal  negative,  and  in  Illustration  No. 
34  the  negative  is  shown.  Compare  these  two  illustrations — 
the  positive  and  negative.  Both  should  be  studied  carefully 
before  proceeding  further. 

(i8i) 


1 82  Library^  of  Practical  Photography 

316.  The  development  of  this  correctly  exposed  nega- 
tive, as  shown  in  Illustration  No.  34,  has  been  carried  just 
far  enough,  in  that  the  highest  points  of  light,  which  are  the 
high-lights  on  the  road  and  the  light  from  the  sky  showing 
through  the  branches  of  the  trees,  have  been  developed  so 
that  they  are  almost  opaque. 

317.  One  great  difficulty  in  working  with  subjects  of 
this  kind  is  the  tendency  of  the  sky  (which  quickly  acts  upon 
the  sensitive  plate)  to  become  over-developed  (hence  very 
opaque)  by  the  time  the  high-lights  of  the  balance  of  the 
picture  are  carried  to  the  proper  stage  in  development.  If 
the  negative  has  been  under-developed  (not  left  in  the  de- 
veloping solution  long  enough)  the  high-lights  will  be  weak, 
and  the  shadows  will  not  contain  as  much  detail  as  is  re- 
quired. 

318.  The  over-development  of  normal  exposures  very 
seldom  increases  the  amount  of  detail  in  the  shadows,  and 
in  the  majority  of  cases  simply  tends  to  cause  a  fog  of  the 
deeper  shadows. 

310.  Over-Exposure. — If  the  negative  has  been  over- 
exposed, flatness  will  result,  in  fact  the  shadows  will  be 
fogged  and  hazy,  as  shown  in  Illustration  No.  35. 

320.  An  under-developed  over-exposure  gives  a  weak, 
flat  negative.  To  correctly  develop  an  over-exposure  the 
development,  unless  it  can  be  restrained  in  time  to  overcome 
the  flatness,  should  be  carried  a  trifle  further  than  is  required 
to  produce  a  correctly  developed,  normally  exposed  negative. 
(See  Illustration  No.  36.) 

321.  The  reason  for  slightly  over-developing  an  over- 
exposed negative  is  to  allow  for  after-manipulation.    A  nega- 


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Illustration  No.  35 

Print  from  Over  Exposed  Though  Correctly  Developed  Negative 

See  Paragraph  No.  310 


Illustration  No.  3  6 

.\  Correctly  Developed,  Over-Exposed  Negative 

See  Paragrsiph  No.  320 


Illustration  No.  37 

Print  from  Under-Exposed  and  Correctly  Developed   Negative 

See  Paragraph  No.  323 


Illu.stration  No.  38 

An  Under-Exposed,  Correctlv   Developed  Negative 

See  Paragraph  No.  324 


Appearance  of  Negatives  with  Different  Exposures.    185 

tive  which  has  been  over-exposed  and  slightly  over-develop- 
ed can  be  reduced  in  a  reducing  solution,  which  will  not  only 
reduce  the  entire  plate  but  will  clear  the  high-lights  and 
shadows  as  well,  thus  giving  them  snap — resulting  in  a  good 
printing  negative.  Therefore,  by  proceeding  to  handle  an 
over-exposure  in  this  manner,  it  is  possible  to  correct  the 
error  of  over-exposure  and  secure  a  negative  which  very 
closely  resembles  the  normal  negative.  The  greatest  fault 
with  the  average  worker  in  handling  over-exposed  negatives 
is  to  under-develop  them,  as  he  thinks  that  the  fogging  over 
during  the  early  part  of  the  process  of  development  signifies 
that  sufficient  density  has  been  secured. 

322.  There  is,  however,  a  possibility  of  over-developing 
an  over-exposure.  When  carried  to  this  extreme,  the 
shadows  are  usually  veiled  with  a  heavy  fog,  and  the  nega- 
tive is  practically  ruined,  unless  given  a  vigorous  treatment 
with  the  proper  reducer  and  afterwards  intensified.  When- 
ever possible  one  should  try  and  restrain  an  over-exposure 
during  development,  and  thus  avoid  the  necessity  of  over- 
developing. 

323.  Under-Exposure. — If  a  negative  has  not  been 
gpiven  full  exposure,  and  is  not  treated  for  under-exposure  in 
the  developing,  it  will  lack  detail  in  the  shadows,  and  the 
result  is  extreme  contrast.    (See  Illustration  No.  37.) 

324.  Illustration  No.  38  shows  a  correctly  developed, 
under-exposed  negative.  While  all  the  detail  possible  with 
the  exposure  given  has  been  retained,  yet  we  have  not  as 
much  detail  as  in  the  correctly  exposed  negative,  as  is  shown 
in  111.  No.  34.  The  development  has  been  carried  until  the 
highest  points  of  light  are  almost  as  dense  as  the  high-lights 
in  the  correctly  developed  normal  exposure. 


1 86  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

325.  An  under-exposed  negative  should  not  be  carried 
quite  as  far  in  the  developer  as  a  correctly  exposed  one,  for 
if  carried  too  far,  or  even  as  far  as  the  normal  negative,  the 
result  will  simply  be  still  greater  contrast  and  danger  of 
chemical  fog  veiling  the  shadows.  Proper  manipulation  will 
produce  a  print  as  shown  in  111.  No.  37.  By  comparing  this 
print  with  111.  No.  33  you  will  see  that  there  is,  however, 
considerable  difference,  for  111.  No.  37  is  very  weak  as  com- 
pared with  111.  No.  33,  which  latter  is  strong  and  brilliant, 
and  has  everything  to  be  desired  in  a  good  print.  But  unless 
the  under-exposed  plate  had  been  nursed  in  development  the 
results  would  have  been  harsh  and  worthless. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Elementary  Tank  Development. 

326.  Tank  or  Stand  Development  is  purely  a  mechan- 
ical procedure.  The  requirements  are  merely  a  tank  or 
liquid-holding  receptacle,  chemicals,  exposed  plates,  a  ther- 
mometer and  a  time-piece. 

327.  Tank  development  is  based  on  the  principle  that 
an  exposed  negative  will  develop  to  its  full  density  in  a 
developer  of  a  given  strength,  and  with  a  given  temperature. 
A  long  series  of  experiments  have  proven  that  the  slow  de- 
velopment of  a  negative  will  bring  out  greater  detail  and  a 
longer  range  of  tones  than  the  rapid  development,  which 
is  generally  effected  when  the  tray  method  is  employed. 
Apart  from  this  the  advantages  of  the  tank  for  the  amateur 
lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no  handling  of  the  plate  during 
development,  so  that  the  liability  to  scratch  the  film  is 
avoided,  and,  also,  the  necessity  for  examining  the  plate  by 
a  ruby  lamp  is  obviated.  This  in  itself  is  quite  a  point,  as 
many  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  ruby  lamps  are  apt  to  fog  a 
rapid  plate. 

328.  The  simplest  form  of  tank  development  is  that 
in  which  an  ordinary  grooved  glass,  wood  or  fibre  hypo  box 
is  used.  Such  boxes  can  be  obtained  in  all  sizes,  at  most 
dealers  in  photographic  supplies,  and,  provided  they  are 
perfectly  clean  interiorly — that  is,  free  from  all  chemicals 
that  will  be  harmful  to  the  plates  during  development — such 

(187) 


188  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

tanks  are  fully  the  equal  of  the  improved  metal  tanks  offered 
by  various  manufacturers.  These  latter  metal  tanks,  how- 
ever, are  designed  with  reference  to  their  use  outside  the 
dark-room,  and  for  a  good  many  this  is  a  distinct  advantage. 
Provided,  however,  that  the  amateur  has  at  his  disposal  a 
dark-room,  the  ordinary  groove  tank  first  mentioned  will 
make  an  efficient  receptacle  for  plate  development. 

329.  Note. — When  using  such  a  simplified  form  of 
tank,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  plates  are  lifted  up  and 
down  in  the  developer  several  times  when  first  inserted  into 
the  grooves.  This  is  necessary  to  cause  the  removal  of  air- 
bells,  which  are  liable  to  adhere  to  the  film  and  prevent  de- 
velopment at  those  spots.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  agitate 
the  developer  in  the  tank  occasionally  during  development 
especially  if  development  is  prolonged — say  over  twenty 
minutes — for  if  the  developer  has  been  standing  some  time 
in  the  tank  the  active  agents  are  liable  to  sink  to  the  bottom, 
creating  a  denser  image  on  the  film  in  its  lower  part. 

330.  Eastman  Plate  Tank. — For  the  amateur  who  is 
not  provided  with  a  proper  dark-room,  or  who  prefers  to  do 
most  of  his  work  in  the  light,  the  various  improved  forms  of 
plate  tanks  are  recommended.  Of  these,  the  most  advanced 
in  its  methods  of  tank  construction  is  the  Eastman  Plate 
Tank.  This  tank  consists  of  a  metal  solution  cup,  or  tank, 
with  tightly  fitting  cover ;  a  cage  or  rack  for  holding  twelve 
plates,  or  less,  during  development  and  fixing,  and  a  simple 
block  guide  for  loading  the  plates  into  the  cage. 

331.  The  tank  is  manipulated  as  follows:  First,  take 
the  plate  rack  from  the  tank  and  attach  the  loading  block 
to  it.  See  Illustration  No.  39.  With  the  block  attached, 
proceed   to   load   the    rack   by   sliding   the   plate   through 


Illustration   No.   39. 

Attaching  Loading  Block  to  Plate  Rack. 

See  Paragraph  No.  331. 


Illustration  No.  40. 

Loading  Plates  Into  Rack. 

See  Paragraph  No.  331. 


Eastman  Plate  Tank, 


Illustration  Xo.  41. 

Lowering    Rock    of   Plates 

Into   Solution   Cup. 

vSce   Paragraph   Xo.   331, 


Illustration   Xo.  42. 

I'astoning  Cover  of  Solution  Cup. 

v'^ee  Paragrapli  3^2. 

Eastman  Plate  Tank. 


Elementary  Tank  Development  191 

the  slot  In  the  block  into  grooves  in  the  rack.  See  illustra- 
tion No.  40.  Then  move  the  slotted  guide  over  the  next 
groove  and  load  the  next  plate,  and  so  on  until  the  plates 
have  been  loaded  into  the  plate  rack,  then  remove  the  load- 
ing block.  Now  fill  the  tank  with  the  developer  and  turn 
the  plate  rack  so  that  the  plates  are  the  long  way  up,  and 
lower  the  rack  carefully  into  the  solution  tank.  See  Illus- 
tration No.  41. 

332.  As  soon  as  the  plates  have  been  lowered  into  the 
developer,  the  rack  should  be  raised  up  and  down  a  few 
times  by  means  of  the  wire  rod;  this  is  done  to  expel  air- 
bells.  Then  the  tank  cover  is  fastened  in  place  and  the  time 
is  noted,  and  the  hand  on  the  dial  on  the  front  of  the  tank 
is  set  to  indicate  time  when  development  will  be  completed. 
See  Illustration  No.  42. 

333.  The  development  is  allowed  to  continue  for  say 
fifteen  minutes,  the  entire  tank  being  reversed  end  for  end 
four  or  five  times  during  development,  as  this  allows  the 
developer  to  act  evenly  over  the  plate. 

334.  After  development  the  solution  is  washed  out  of 
the  plates  by  filling  the  tank  several  times  with  fresh  water, 
after  which  the  fixing  bath  is  poured  into  the  tank.  The 
fixing  may  be  carried  on  in  daylight. 

335.  Washing. — The  plates,  after  fixing,  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  rack  for  final  washing.  The  washing  is 
preferably  done  in  a  regular  washing  tank,  or  it  may  be  done 
in  trays.  When  removing  the  plates  from  the  rack,  turn  the 
rack  on  its  side  and  withdraw  the  plates.  See  Illustration 
No.  43.  If  plates  were  inserted  with  glass  sides  together 
and  two  plates  in  one  groove,  they  must  be  separated  by 


192 


Library  of  Practical  Photography. 


sliding  one  plate  past  the  other,  lengthwise.    See  Illustration 
No.  44. 


lUuBtration  No.  43. 

RemovinK  Plates  from  Rack. 

See  Parasrraph  No.  335. 


lUustratlon  No.  44. 

Separating:  Plates  after  Removal  from  Raek. 

See  Paracrapb  No.  335. 

336.  In  Illustrations  No.  45  and  No.  46  are  presented 
two  styles  of  very  simply  constructed  developing  tanks,  the 
Ingento  Automatic  Developing  Tanks,  fitted  with  light-tight 
metal  covers.  While  the  loading  of  these  tanks  must  be  done 
in  the  dark,  yet  the  developing  can  be  carried  on  in  daylight. 
The  tanks  are  made  for  all  sizes  of  plates  from  3^4  x  4^  to 
8  X 10.  The  Style  "A"  tank  is  made  of  brass,  nickle-plated, 
and  fitted  with  a  removable  rack,  and  can  be  used  for  devel- 
oping, fixing  and  washing.    When  the  plates  are  developed 


Illustration  No.  45. 

Ingento  Developing  Tank. 

Style  A. 

See  Paragraph  No.  336. 


Illustration  No.  46. 

Ingento  Developing  Tank. 

Style   B. 

See  Paragraph  No.  336, 


Illustration  No.  47. 
Ingento  Changing  Bag. 
See  Paragraph  No.  339. 


Elementanf  Tank  Development  195 

the  developer  can  be  poured  off  and  sufficient  hypo  solution 
poured  into  the  tank  to  cover  the  negatives.  After  the 
plates  are  fixed  the  hypo  solution  can  be  poured  into  a  jar 
or  vessel  and  saved  for  the  next  batch  of  plates,  and  the  tank 
can  then  be  used  as  a  washing  box,  by  allowing  the  water 
from  the  tap  to  enter  through  the  funnel.  In  this  way  the 
hypo  will  be  thoroughly  eliminated  from  the  negatives  and 
tank  simultaneously. 

337.  Style  "B"  tank  is  more  cheaply  constructed  and 
Is  made  of  zinc,  with  side  walls  fitted  with  long  grooves,  to 
receive  the  plates,  and  has  a  patent  lifting  bottom,  by  means 
of  which  the  plates,  after  developing,  may  be  raised  to  the 
top  of  the  tank  and  removed  to  the  fixing  bath  without  dip- 
ping the  fingers  into  the  solution.  This  style  tank  can  be 
used  for  developing  and  washing,  but  it  is  not  recommended 
for  fixing,  as  zinc  will  gradually  disintegrate  under  the 
action  of  hypo  solution;  therefore,  where  zinc  tanks  are 
used  an  extra  fixing  tank  should  be  employed. 

338.  Loading  the  Tank  With  Plates.— Style  "A"  tank 
having  a  movable  grooved  rack  for  holding  the  plates,  the 
rack  should  be  taken  from  the  tank  and  loaded  by  sliding 
the  plates  into  the  grooves,  after  which  the  loaded  rack  is 
replaced  in  the  tank  ready  for  developing.  In  style  "B"  the 
plates  must  be  loaded  in  the  tank  proper,  as  this  style  con- 
tains no  rack,  the  grooves  being  built  in  the  side  walls  of  the 
tank.  Where  a  large  number  of  plates  are  to  be  developed 
two  plates  may  be  placed  with  glass  sides  together,  and 
both  slid  into  the  one  groove,  thus  enabling  you  to  develop 
double  the  number  of  plates  that  you  would  if  a  single  plate 
were  placed  in  each  groove. 


196  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

339.  Ingento  Changing  Bag. — Where  no  dark-room  is 
at  hand  for  loading  plate  holders  or  developing  tank,  the 
Ingento  rubber  changing  bag  will  be  found  very  convenient 
(See  Illustration  No.  47.)  The  plate  holders,  box  of  plates, 
or  developing  tank,  are  put  in  the  bag  at  one  end.  The  bag 
is  then  closed  with  glove  fasteners.  The  hands  are  inserted 
through  the  sleeves  (which  have  rubber  wrist-bands),  and 
the  plates  are  changed  by  aid  of  the  sense  of  feeling. 

340.  Liquid  Capacity  of  Tanks. — 

Size  Empty  With  6  Plates 

3%mH  20  ozs.  i6  ozs. 

3Hx5^  28    "  23    " 

4  x5  30    "  24    " 
454x6^  40    "  32    " 

5  x7  SO    "  40    " 

341.  Developers  for  Tank  Developing. — Any  good  de- 
veloper can  be  used  with  the  developing  tank,  providing  it 
is  prepared  to  completely  develop  in  a  given  time.  For  the 
convenience  of  the  consumer  different  manufacturers  have 
prepared  special  powders  put  up  expressly  for  tank  develop- 
ing. The  powders  are  sold  in  different  sized  packages,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  bath  required,  and  are  to  be  dissolved  in 
a  given  amount  of  water,  when  they  are  ready  for  use. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  to  dissolve  every  particle  of  the 
powder,  to  prevent  spots  in  the  negatives.  For  those  who 
prefer  preparing  their  own  developer  we  recommend  the 
regular  formula  given  in  Volume  II,  paragraph  504. 

342.  Take  of  stock  solution  No.  1, 1  oz.,  of  No.  2, 1  oz., 
of  No.  3,  1  oz.,  and  add  18  ozs.  of  water,  or  three  times  as 
much  water  as  you  would  use  for  a  normal  bath  for  tray 
developing.  With  the  bath  at  a  temperature  of  65°  Fahr. 
plates  will  develop  in  12  minutes.    By  using  four  times  the 


Elementary  Tan\  Development  197 

amount  of  water,  or  24  ozs.,  you  will  have  a  15  minute  devel- 
oper. 

343.  P3rro  Developer  No.  2. — For  those  who  prefer 
weighing  out  sufficient  chemicals  for  each  batch  of  de- 
veloper, we  recommend  the  following  bath  for  15  minute 
development : 

Pyro    20  grs. 

Sulphite  of  Soda  (Anhydrous)   60  grs. 

Carbonate  of  Soda  (Anhydrous) 40  grs. 

344.  Dissolve  the  chemicals  in  the  order  named  in  5 
or  6  ozs.  of  luke  warm  water ;  then  add  cold  water  to  make 
up  a  bath  of  24  ozs.  With  the  temperature  of  the  developer 
65°  Fahr.  the  plates  will  completely  develop  in  15  minutes. 

345.  Filling  the  Developing  Tank. — Prepare  in  a  large 
graduate  or  pitcher  the  quantity  of  developer  necessary  to 
fill  the  size  tank  employed.  With  the  tank  loaded  with 
plates,  place  on  the  cover,  insert  the  funnel,  and  pour  into 
the  tank  the  proper  amount  of  developer  to  completely  cover 
the  plates. 

346.  Note.— It  is  important  that  the  full  quantity  of 
developer  be  contained  in  one  vessel,  and  the  flow  into  the 
tank  must  be  continuous  without  any  intermission ;  otherwise 
the  finished  negatives  are  liable  to  show  streaks  where  the 
intermission  took  place.  If  a  vessel  large  enough  to  hold  the 
full  quantity  of  developer  cannot  be  had  at  the  time,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  fill  the  tank  with  the  developer  before 
inserting  the  plates.  You  thus  avoid  streaks.  If  the  latter 
method  is  employed  it  is  advisable,  when  placing  the  plates 
in  the  tank,  to  slowly  raise  the  negative  rack,  or  plate  lifter 
containing  plates,  a  few  times  up  and  down  in  the  solution, 
hut  do  not  raise  them  above  the  solution.    This  will  remove 


1 98  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

any  air-bells  that  may  collect  on  the  films.  Should  they 
remain  unbroken  they  would  cause  pin-holes  and  spots  on 
the  finished  negative. 

347.  Developing. — Where  the  developer  is  poured  into 
the  tank  after  the  plates  are  inserted,  as  soon  as  the  tank  is 
full  of  developer  note  carefully  the  time  at  which  the  devel- 
opment will  be  completed.  Do  not  disturb  the  plates  until 
that  time  has  arrived.  When  the  tank  is  filled  with  devel- 
er  first  and  the  plates  inserted  afterwards,  the  time  should 
not  be  taken  until  after  you  have  raised  and  lowered  the 
plates  a  few  times,  to  remove  air-bells. 

348.  Temperature. — It  is  important  in  automatic  tank 
development  that  the  temperature  of  the  bath  be  between 
65°  and  70°  Fahr.  It  must  not  be  over  70°,  for  an  increased 
temperature  will  quicken  the  developer,  and  a  decreased 
temperature  will  retard  it.  The  temperature  of  the  devel- 
oper should  be  tested  with  a  thermometer  just  before  the 
solution  is  poured  into  the  tank.  A  change  of  5°  in  tem- 
perature may  lengthen  or  shorten  the  required  time  for 
complete  development;  thus  the  necessity  of  knowing  the 
temperature  just  before  you  begin  to  develop. 

349.  Fixing  Bath. — ^The  acid  fixing  bath  is  recom- 
mended for  tank  development,  as  it  hardens  the  film,  making 
the  plates  less  liable  to  damage  from  handling.  The  regular 
prepared  acid  fixing  powder,  prepared  in  packages  ready 
for  use,  will  be  found  very  convenient.  All  that  is  required 
is  to  dissolve  the  contents  in  a  given  amount  of  water  and 
place  in  a  jar  or  vessel  ready  for  use.  For  those  who  pre- 
pare their  own  hypo  bath  we  recommend  the  following: 

Water  30  ozs. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda  8  ozs. 

Sulphite  of  Soda  (Anhydrous)  i6o  grs. 


Elementary  Tcmk  Development  199 

When  fully  dissolved  add  the  following  hardner: 

Dissolve  in  2  oz.  of  lukewarm  water  and  then  add  to 

bath: 

Powdered  Alum  %  oz. 

Citric  Acid   %  oz. 

Stir  well  while  adding  the  hardner.  This  bath  should  thor- 
oughly fix  plates  in  15  minutes.  The  hypo  bath  may  be  used 
continuously,  so  long  as  it  retains  its  strength  or  is  not  suffi- 
ciently discolored  to  stain  the  negatives. 

350,  Washing. — One  hour's  washing  in  running  water 
is  sufficient.  After  washing  the  plates  may  be  placed  in 
the  drying  rack  in  the  usual  way.  Where  plates  are  devel- 
oped, fixed  and  washed  back  to  back  in  the  developing 
tank,  they  should  be  separated  and  the  back  thoroughly 
rinsed  before  placing  in  the  rack  to  dry. 

351.  Notes. — The  developer  must  be  thoroughly  dis- 
solved before  using.  Undissolved  particles  will  produce 
spots  on  the  negatives. 

The  developing  tank  should  be  scrupulously  clean  at 
the  time  of  developing. 

The  temperature  of  the  developing  solution  should 
never  be  less  than  65°,  nor  more  than  70°. 

A  thermometer  should  always  be  used  in  testing  the 
temperature;  5°  difference  in  temperature  will  make  a  dif- 
ference in  the  required  time  of  development. 

Do  not  leave  the  solution  standing  in  the  tank  when  not 
in  use. 

Do  not  leave  exposed  plates  in  a  damp  tank  for  any 
length  of  time  before  development. 

Should  negatives  appear  dense  you  will  understand  that 
they  are  over-developed.  Should  they  appear  thin  you  will 
understand  they  are  under-developed. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
Photographic  Printing. 

352.  Printing  is  a  method  of  obtaining,  on  paper  or 
other  material,  positive  pictures  from  negatives,  which  may- 
be either  plates  or  films.  The  necessary  apparatus  is  a 
printing  frame,  in  which  the  sensitive  surface  of  the  paper, 
etc.,  is  pressed  into  close  contact  with  the  face  of  the  nega- 
tive, and  held  in  that  position  during  the  process  of  printing. 
The  ordinary  printing  frame  consists  of  a  wooden  box- 
shaped  frame,  having  a  hinged  lid  to  allow  of  the  examina- 
tion of  the  picture  during  the  printing  process.  (See  Illus- 
tration No.  48.)  Where  film  negatives  are  to  be  printed 
from,  or  a  smaller  negative  than  the  size  frame  you  have 
at  hand,  a  strong  glass  is  placed  in  the  printing  frame, 
which  serves  as  a  support  for  the  small  film  or  glass  nega- 
tive. 

353.  Loading  the  Printing  Frame. — ^To  load  the  print- 
ing frame,  remove  the  hinged  lid  and  place  the  negative  in 
this  frame,  gelatin  side  up.  Next,  place  the  fingers  of 
your  left  hand  underneath  the  printing  frame,  so  as  to  push 
one  end  (the  end  nearest  you)  of  the  negative  up  above  the 
printing  frame.  Then,  with  a  camel's  hair  brush  or  a  piece 
of  soft  dry  cloth,  carefully  dust  the  plate  by  drawing  the 
cloth  or  brush  over  the  negative  and  toward  you.  This 
will  remove  all  the  dust  from  the  negative  and  out  of  the 
printing  frame.     If  you   dust  the  plate  without   raising 

(201) 


202  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

it  above  the  printing  frame,  it  will  simply  remove  the 
dust  from  parts  of  the  plate,  but  not  from  the  printing 
frame,  and  it  might  work  back  on  the  negative  again.  These 
little  particles  of  dust,  if  allowed  to  remain  on  the  negative 
or  in  the  printing  frame,  will  cause  white  specks  on  the 
print.  Never  attempt  to  remove  the  dust  by  blowing  on 
the  negative,  as  saliva  is  liable  to  be  blown  on  the  film,  and 
the  least  bit  of  moisture  would  cause  the  paper  to  stick  to 
the  negative.    (See  Illustration  No.  49.) 

354.  When  ready  to  print,  place  the  sensitized  paper 
on  the  negative,  the  emulsion  side  coming  in  contact  with 
the  film.  (See  Illustration  No.  50.)  Then  place  the  back 
of  the  printing  frame  in  position,  press  down  the  springs 
and  fasten  tight.  The  printing  frame  is  now  loaded  and 
ready  for  printing.  Place  the  printing  frame  in  strong  day- 
light. (See  Illustration  No.  51.)  If  you  have  carefully 
cleaned  the  glass  side  of  the  negative,  you  can  place  it  in 
direct  sunlight.  The  effect  of  the  light  coming  through  the 
negative  to  the  sensitive  paper  will  be  to  gradually  print 
the  image  from  the  negative  onto  the  paper.  The  thin  or 
transparent  parts  of  the  negative  print  first  and  change  the 
paper  from  white  to  a  dark  color,  thus  producing  the  image. 

355.  Blue  Print  Paper. — The  simplest  of  all  processes 
for  making  prints  is  undoubtedly  that  known  as  the  Ferro- 
Prussiate,  or  Blue  Print  process,  in  which,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, the  pictures  are  a  bright  blue.  There  are  many  dif- 
ferent brands  of  this  paper  on  the  market  and  they  can  be 
purchased  at  any  photographic  supply  house.  While  the 
instructions  which  are  sent  out  by  the  manufacturers  are 
generally  found  to  give  good  satisfaction,  we  deem  it  advis- 
able to  give  the  following  short  instruction. 


Illustration  No.  48 

Printing  Frame 

See  Paragraph  No. 3 52 


Illustration  No.  49 
Dusting  Plate  in  Print- 
ing Frame 
See  Paragraph  No. 3  53 


Illustration  No.  50 

Loading  Printing 

Frame 

See  Paragraph  No.  354 


Illustration  No.  51 

Printing  Frame  in  Position 

See  Paragraph  No.  354 


Illustration  No.  54 

Sliding  Prints  From  Box  Cover  into  Toning  Bath 

See  Paragraph  No.  391 


Photographic  Printing.  205 

356.  Depth  of  Printing.— You  will  find  that  while  this 
paper  prints  fairiy  rapidly,  it  is  best  to  make  your  prints  in 
strong  sunlight.  The  paper  is  placed  in  position  on  the 
negative  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  yellow  side  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  film  of  the  negative.  When  the  shadows  take 
on  an  olive  green  appearance,  a  bronzing  as  it  were,  the 
image  is  printed  dark  enough.  A  little  experimenting  will 
soon  teach  you  the  proper  depth  of  printing. 

357.  Developing. — Place  in  a  clean  tray  sufficient 
water  to  almost  fill  it.  Place  your  prints  into  this  clean 
water,  allowing  them  to  remain  for  a  few  minutes.  Then 
give  them  a  number  of  changes  until  the  last  water  shows 
no  discoloration ;  about  15  minutes  of  washing  will  be  suf- 
ficient. If  the  water  is  hard,  it  is  advisable  to  add  a  little 
hydrochloric  acid  to  the  wash  waters.  The  prints  may 
also  be  developed  by  holding  directly  under  a  tap  and  al- 
lowing the  water  to  run  on  them  until  the  draining  exhausts 
the  coloring,  when  the  prints  will  be  developed.  It  is  not 
advisable  to  wash  the  prints  longer  than  is  absolutely 
necessary,  as  long  washing  is  apt  to  cause  them  to  become 
flat  and  lose  all  brilliancy. 

358.  Drying  Prints. — Place  your  prints  face  down  on 
a  clean  white,  chemically  pure,  photographic  blotter.  Place 
another  blotter  over  the  prints,  then  rub  your  hand  or  roller 
over  this  blotter,  so  as  to  absorb  the  excessive  moisture  in 
the  prints.  Next  place  your  prints  between  two  perfectly 
dry  blotters  and  allow  them  to  remain  until  dry. 

359.  Toning  Blue  Prints. — For  those  who  care  to 
tone  their  prints  the  following  formula  will  enable  them  to 
produce  excellent  black  tones.  After  the  print  has  been 
developed  and  washed,  place  it  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  bath 


206  Library)  of  Practical  Photography. 

of  water,  which  has  been  made  slightly  acid  by  adding  a  few 
drops  of  nitric  acid.  After  this  bath  immerse  the  prints  in 
the  following  solution : 

Carbonate  of  Soda  J4  ounce 

Water    12  ounces 

360.  Allow  them  to  remain  until  the  image  disappears 
and  reappears  again  with  an  orange  tone.  They  should 
then  be  placed  in  the  following  bath : 

Gallic  Acid  54  ounce 

Water    12  ounces 

Leave  the  print  in  this  bath  until  the  desired  tone  is 
obtained,  which  usually  requires  from  eight  to  ten  minutes. 

361.  Converting  Blue  Prints  Into  Brown  Prints. — 
If  you  have  blue  prints  which  you  desire  to  convert  into 
a  brown  tone,  the  following  method  will  be  found  very  satis- 
factory. The  blue  prints  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and 
dried,  and  then  quickly  plunged  into  the  following  solution : 

Strong  Ammonia  i  ounce 

Pure  Water  8  ounces 

362.  Leave  the  print  in  this  solution  until  it  has  nearly 
lost  all  of  its  color,  which  will  take  from  two  to  four 
minutes.  Rinse  the  print  and  again  plunge  it  into  a  bath 
of  tannic  acid  prepared  as  follows : 

Tannic  Acid 54  ounce 

Pure  Water  25  ounces 

363.  Leave  the  print  in  this  bath  until  the  desired 
clearness  and  tone  are  obtained,  which  will  usually  require 
about  ten  minutes.  When  the  color  is  not  dark  enough 
it  may  be  intensified  by  adding  to  this  bath  a  few  drops  of 
ammonia.  After  a  couple  of  minutes  rinse  the  print  thor- 
oughly in  water,  and  dry. 


Photographic  Printing.  207 

364.  Practice  Work. — Making  blue  prints,  especially 
where  you  buy  the  paper  already  sensitized,  is  a  very  sim- 
ple process,  as  the  paper  is  printed  in  bright  sunlight  and 
is  developed  by  merely  washing  in  water.  The  principal 
interest  in  this  process  lies  in  the  sensitizing  of  your  own 
paper,  as  the  sensitizing  bath  may  be  applied  to  fabrics, 
or  any  other  surface,  and  prints  made  just  the  same  as 
upon  paper.    See  following  chapter. 

365.  As  this  process  is  quite  simple,  you  will  experi- 
ence little  or  no  trouble.  Be  sure  and  print  in  the  sun. 
The  appearance  of  the  print  during  printing  is  faint  and 
mealy,  similar  to  a  platinum.  Print  until  all  outline  is 
visible.  A  few  experiments  will  enable  you  to  judge  the 
proper  depth.  It  is  advisable  to  note  on  the  back  of  the 
prints  of  your  first  efforts,  all  the  data  connected  with  the 
experiments,  which  file  for  future  reference. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Blue  Print  (Ferro-Prussiate)  Sensitizing — Paper,  Cloth, 

Silk,  Etc. 

366.  While  instructions  for  using  this  paper  already 
sensitized,  ready  for  use,  will  be  found  in  the  previous  para- 
graphs, the  following  formula  for  preparing  your  own  paper 
may  be  employed.  This  same  sensitizing  solution  can  be 
applied  to  a  number  of  other  surfaces,  such  as  cloth,  silk, 
post  cards,  etc. 

367.  Formula  for  Sensitizing  Solution. — 

STOCK  SOLUTION  NO.  i. 

Water    8      ozs. 

Citrate  of  Iron  and  Ammonia  i^  ozs. 

STOCK  SOLUTION  NO.  2. 

Ferricyanide  of  Potassium  i54  ozs. 

Water  8      ozs. 

368.  The  Ferricyanide  should  be  in  clear,  bright  ruby 
crystals,  and  it  is  always  well  to  rinse  them  in  plain  water 
before  final  dissolving,  as  almost  all  of  these  crystals  have 
a  slight  brown  coating  on  them  and  it  is  best  to  remove 
this.    Place  in  a  bottle  and  mark  it  Solution  No.  2. 

369.  When  the  solutions  are  dissolved  keep  them  in  a 
dark  place.  If  you  do  this  they  will  keep  for  a  long  time; 
in  fact,  the  bath  will  work  better  after  standing  for  at  least 
one  week. 

370.  Sensitizing  the  Paper. — The  best  paper  to  use 
is  the  plain  Rives  paper,  which  can  be  purchased  at  any 

(209) 


210  Lihrar^  of  Practical  Photography. 

photographic  stock  house.  Mix  equal  parts  of  No.  1  and 
No.  2  solutions  and  with  a  brush  apply  to  the  paper;  or  if 
you  desire,  float  the  paper  on  the  solution.  For  the  be- 
ginner we  advise  the  cutting  of  a  sheet  of  paper  into  small 
sheets,  especially  if  you  intend  to  float  it.  Place  the  solu- 
tion in  the  tray  (this  tray  should  be  used  for  nothing  else 
but  this  sensitizing  solution).  Catch  the  sheet  of  paper  at 
two  corners,  between  the  fore  finger  and  thumb  of  both 
hands,  and  then  lower  it  onto  the  solution,  having  the  cen- 
ter of  the  sheet  touch  first,  and  then  slowly  lower  the  rest 
of  the  paper  over  the  solution,  being  careful  that  you  float 
the  paper  and  get  none  of  the  solution  on  the  back.  (See 
Illus.  No.  52.)  As  soon  as  the  sheet  is  on  the  bath,  raise 
the  paper  from  one  corner  and  gently  remove  any  air-bells 
that  may  have  gathered.  (See  Illus.  No.  53.)  Allow  the 
paper  to  float  for  about  three  minutes,  after  which  hang 
up  to  dry.  The  paper  must  be  dried  in  the  dark,  and  when 
dry  it  can  be  rolled  up  and  placed  in  a  light-tight  box,  or 
cupboard. 

371.  When  sensitizing  post  cards  it  is  advisable  to 
do  it  with  a  brush,  applying  the  sensitizer  only  to  the  parts 
of  the  post  card  on  which  you  are  going  to  print.  Occa- 
sionally you  will  find  that  the  prints  look  foggy,  that  is 
to  say,  it  is  impossible  for  you  to  obtain  clear  whites.  It 
is  then  advisable  to  add  one-half  grain  of  potassium  bicar- 
bonate to  the  above  sensitizer.  When  sensitizing  post  cards 
they  should  be  dried  as  rapidly  as  possible.  It  is  advisable 
to  do  this  sensitizing  in  artificial  light. 

372.  An  excellent  bath,  which  gives  a  very  sensi- 
tive and  quick  printing  paper,  is  made  according  to  the 
following  formula : 


Illustration  No.  52 

Sensitizing  the  Paper — Lowering  onto  the  Bath 

See  Paragraph  No.  370 


Illustration  No.  53 

Sensitizing  the  Paper— Removing  Air-bells 

See  Paragraph  No.  370 


Blue  Print  Semitizing — Paper ,  Cloth,  Silk,  Etc        213 

(a)  Ferric  Ammonium  Citrate   (green)*.,  .no  grains 
Water    i  ounce 

(b)  Potassium  Ferricyanide   40  grains 

Water    i  ounce 

Mix  in  equal  parts;  keep  in  the  dark,  and  filter  just 

before  use. 

♦If  the  ordinary  brown  citrate  is  used,  the  formula 
should  contain  80  grains,  and  the  ferricyanide  should  be 
increased  to  60  grains.  This  solution  is  applied  to  the 
paper  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  first  formula 
given. 

373.  Sepia  Paper. — A  sensitizing  solution  which  will 
give  a  sepia  paper  is  made  according  to  the  following  for- 
mula: 

(a)  Ferric  Ammonium  Citrate  (green) no  grains 

Water   i  ounce 

(b)  Tartaric    Acid    18  grains 

Water   i  ounce 

(c)  Silver   Nitrate    45  grains 

Water    i  ounce 

(d)  Gelatin    30  grains 

Water   i  ounce 

374.  Solution  d  should  be  rendered  just  fluid  in  a 
water  bath,  a  and  h  added,  and  lastly  c,  a  few  drops  at  a  time. 
Printing  is  carried  the  same  depth  as  for  the  regular  blue 
print,  and  the  prints  then  fixed  in  a  solution  of  hypo — 
1  part  hypo  and  50  parts  water.  After  fixing  they  should 
be  washed  for  not  less  than  20  minutes,  then  dried. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
Gelatin  Printing-Out  Paper. 

375.  Printing  and  Toning  Gelatin  Printing-Out 
Papers. — The  following  instruction  covers  the  simplest 
method  of  finishing  prints  made  on  gelatin  printing-out 
paper,  the  prints  being  toned  and  fixed  in  a  combined  bath. 
By  a  combined  bath  we  mean  a  bath  in  which  the  toning 
and  fixing  have  been  combiaed  into  one  operation. 

For  toning  and  fixing  prints  in  separate  bath  see  Vol.  IV. 

376.  Printing  on  Gelatin  Printing-Out  Paper. — The 
length  of  time  required  to  completely  print  the  image  varies 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  light  and  the  density  of 
negative,  and  ranges  from  five  to  thirty  minutes.  The 
image  on  the  paper  will  be  of  a  dark  red  color,  and  printing 
will  be  completed  when  the  high-lights  or  white  portions 
are  slightly  tinted — no  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
shadows  as  they  will  be  cared  for  in  the  toning.  When  at 
this  stage  the  print  should  then  be  removed  from  the  frame 
and  placed  in  a  box,  excluding  the  daylight.  Should  the 
print,  after  removal  from  the  frame,  be  exposed  to  the  day- 
light, the  high-lights  or  lightest  portions  will  gradually 
change  to  the  color  of  the  densest  shadows.  You  must, 
therefore,  guard  against  exposing  the  print  to  strong  light 
after  printing,  before  or  while  toning. 

377.  Different  kinds  of  negatives  require  different 
depths  of  printing.  For  example,  a  dense  negative,  or  in 
other  words,  a  slow  printing  one,  will  print  slower,  but  will 

(215) 


216  Lihrary  of  Practical  Photography. 

print  deeper,  than  a  soft  or  quick  printing  negative.  From 
the  fact  that  a  dense  or  hard  negative  prints  slowly,  it  gives 
a  more  solid  print  than  a  thin  negative.  Because  of  the 
great  density  of  the  plate  the  high-lights  are  restrained 
from  printing  until  the  shadows  have  been  exposed  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  to  the  strong  light,  and  have 
penetrated  deeper  into  the  emulsion  of  the  paper. 

378.  By  the  time  the  high-lights  are  properly  printed 
the  shadows  will  be  printed  very  deep,  but  will  not  lose  any 
of  the  detail  in  the  toning.  Therefore,  a  dense  negative 
(one  which  is  contrasty  and  a  slow  printer)  should  not  be 
printed  as  deep  as  a  soft  or  thin  one.  With  a  hard  negative, 
print  one-half  shade  deeper  than  you  desire  the  finished 
picture. 

379.  It  is  different  with  a  soft  or  quick  printing  nega- 
tive. A  quick  printing  negative  prints  on  the  surface  only, 
unless  exposed  and  printed  in  the  shade,  instead  of  in  bright 
sunlight.  In  fact,  it  is  advisable  to  print  thin  negatives  in 
the  shade  to  get  the  best  results.  Even  then  they  should 
be  printed  darker  than  a  slow  printing  one.  In  other  words, 
with  a  weak  negative  (one  that  is  very  thin  and  transparent, 
but  full  of  detail),  we  advise  carrying  the  printing  one  or 
two  shades  deeper  than  is  required  for  the  finished  picture, 
as  the  slower  the  reduction  of  silver  in  printing  the  stronger 
will  be  the  finished  print.  The  toning  and  fixing  being 
combined  will  cause  the  prints  to  grow  only  a  little  lighter 
during  the  process,  as  prints  are  not  previously  washed, 
which  washing  would  reduce  the  strength  of  the  print  be- 
fore toning  and  necessitate  deeper  printing, 

380.  The  slower  you  print  from  a  thin  negative  the 
better.    By  that  we  mean  that  they  should  be  printed  in  the 


Gelatm  Printing-Out  Paper.  2 1 7 

shade.  If  necessary  to  print  in  direct  sunlight,  cover  the 
printing  frame  with  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  very  fine  tis- 
sue paper,  French  tissue  paper,  sometimes  called  onion 
skin,  should  be  used.  In  ordinary  tissue  paper  there  are 
many  little  holes  in  the  texture,  which  would  leave  black 
spots  on  the  prints.  The  proper  tissue  paper  will  filter  the 
light,  causing  it  to  print  more  slowly,  but  much  more  evenly, 
and  when  used  over  a  thin  negative  the  prints  will  be  a 
great  deal  stronger. 

381.  Toning. — Sometimes  prints  toned  in  the  com- 
bined bath  are  not  permanent.  There  are  also  times  when 
some  prints  of  a  batch  are  permanent  and  others  fade 
quickly.  This  is  generally  caused  by  the  printer  over-work- 
ing the  combined  bath ;  i.  e.,  he  has  toned  more  prints  than 
the  quantity  of  bath  will  stand.  The  combined  bath  con- 
tains a  certain  amount  of  gold,  which  will  tone  a  given 
number  of  prints.  As  the  gold  deposit  gives  the  permanent 
tone,  when  this  gold  is  exhausted  there  then  remains  only 
the  lead  and  hypo,  which  will  produce  a  so-called  lead-hypo 
tone  that  is  not  permanent.  The  bath  also  contains  a  lim- 
ited amount  of  hypo,  sufficient  to  balance  the  amount  of 
gold,  and  will  only  fix  a  certain  number  of  prints.  Fixing 
is  a  dissolving  and  eliminating  of  the  unchanged  silver  in 
the  prints,  thus  making  them  permanent.  Therefore,  if 
more  prints  are  toned  and  fixed  in  the  bath  than  the  amount 
of  gold  and  hypo  is  able  to  tone  and  fix,  the  prints  will  be 
neither  toned  nor  fixed,  and,  consequently,  not  permanent 

382.  THE  TEMPERATURE  should  never  be  higher 
than  50°  Fahr.,  both  winter  and  summer.  If  the  tempera- 
ture is  higher  than  50°  you  are  apt  to  produce  sulphuriza- 
tion,  and  sulphurization  will  cause  the  prints  (although  the 
tone  may  be  pleasing)  to  fade  very  rapidly. 


218  Library  of  Practical  Photography 

383.  For  the  beginner  we  advise  the  use  of  prepared 
toning  powders  or  solutions.  These  powders  or  solutions 
are  generally  put  up  in  concentrated  strengths,  requiring  the 
addition  of  so  much  water  before  use.  It  is  generally  best  to 
allow  all  toning  baths  to  stand  for  twelve  hours,  to  ripen 
before  using. 

384.  A  good  plan  is  to  prepare  the  bath  the  day  before 
it  is  wanted.  After  the  beginner  becomes  accustomed  to  the 
use  of  the  prepared  powders  he  can  prepare  his  own  com- 
bined toning  bath  according  to  the  formula  given  below. 

COMBINED  TONING  BATH. 

STOCK  SOLUTION  A. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda  8  ozs. 

Alum    (Crystals)    6  ozs. 

Sugar   (Granulated)    2  ozs. 

Water    8o  ozs. 

385.  Dissolve  the  hypo  in  the  80  ozs.  of  water  first; 
then  add  and  dissolve  the  balance  of  the  chemicals,  one  at 
a  time,  in  the  order  they  are  given.  When  these  are  all 
dissolved  add  to  the  above 

Borax    2  ozs. 

dissolved  in 

Hot  Water    8  ozs. 

The  Stock  Solution  A  should  be  prepared  in  a  large 
glass  jar,  or  small  stone  crock,  and  kept  covered,  free  from 
dust.  Let  this  solution  stand  over  night,  and  for  use  decant 
the  clear  liquid. 

STOCK  SOLUTION  B. 

Chloride  of  Gold  15  grs. 

Acetate  of  Lead  (Sugar  of  Lead) 128  grs. 

Water    15  ozs. 


Study  No.  7 — See  Page  370 


THE  EFFORT 


Bv  C.  F.  Clark 


Gelatin  Printing-Out  Paper.  221 

386.  Chloride  of  gold  can  be  purchased  in  15-grain 
tubes.  Make  of  this  a  liquid  stock  solution,  by  placing  the 
chloride  of  gold  in  a  16-ounce  bottle,  adding  the  acetate  of 
lead,  and  then  dissolving  these  two  chemicals  in  15  ozs.  of 
water.  This  solution  will  then  contain  one  grain  of  gold  to 
every  ounce  of  solution. 

Note. — Solution  B  should  be  shaken  up  before  using, 
and  not  filtered. 

To  tone  fifteen  cabinets,  or  their  equivalent,  take. 

Stock  Solution  A 8  ozs. 

Stock  Solution  B  i  oz. 

Place  the  prints  in  the  above  without  previous  washing. 

Tone  to  the  desired  color,  and  then  immerse  the  prints  for 

five   minutes  in  the   following  salt  solution,  to  stop  the 

toning  : 

Salt    I  oz. 

Water    32  ozs. 

387.  An  extra  fixing  bath  should  be  used  to  insure 

thorough  fixing.    After  the  salt  bath,  give  three  changes  of 

cold  water,  and  then  fix  for  ten  minutes  in  the  extra  fixing 

bath,  composed  of 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda i  oz. 

Sulphite  of  Soda  (Crystals) 60  grs. 

Borax J4  oz. 

Water    20  ozs. 

388.  Wash  one  hour  in  running  cold  water,  or  in 
sixteen  changes  of  cold  water,  when  prints  are  ready  for 
mounting.  The  combined  bath  must  be  used  cold — not  over 
50°  to  55°  Fahr.  If  the  bath  is  too  warm  it  will  cause 
yellow  prints,  with  a  greenish  cast  in  the  half-tones.  The 
combined  bath  is  an  acid  solution.  The  borax  neutralises  only 
the  excess  of  acid  in  the  alum.  Any  attempt  to  neutralize  the 
bath  would  precipitate  the  alum.  The  combined  bath  shotdd 
not  be  used  the  second  time. 

389.  As  all  prints  toned  in  combined  bath  dry  down 
one  shade  darker  in  tone,  you  must  allow  for  this  and  re- 
move the  print  from  the  bath  one  shade  warmer  than  you 
would  like  the  finished  print.  It  is  advisable  to  keep  the 
bath  below  55°  Fahr.  during  toning,  and  when  it  is  not  in  use 


222  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

keep  it  in  a  cool  place.  In  order  to  keep  the  bath  at  the 
proper  temperature,  provide  yourself  with  an  all-glass  dairy 
or  bath  thermometer,  which  is  inexpensive,  and  by  keeping 
it  in  the  bath  constantly,  while  toning,  you  can  regulate  the 
temperature  of  the  bath  at  all  times.  If  it  is  impossible  to 
obtain  an  all-glass  thermometer  you  can  use  one  on  an 
aluminum  frame,  or  even  an  ordinary  thermometer  attached 
to  a  wooden  frame,  provided  the  glass  is  fastened  in  with- 
out nails  or  anything  of  iron,  as  iron  will  ruin  a  toning  bath. 

390.  In  summer  fill  a  tray,  which  should  be  a  few 
inches  larger  than  the  toning  tray,  with  broken  ice.  In  this 
place  the  toning  tray,  which  must  be  of  glass,  porcelain  or 
enamel  lined.  (A  metal  tray  would  destroy  the  toning  bath, 
causing  it  to  turn  black;  the  prints  would  have  iron  rust 
spots  on  the  surface,  and  the  bath  containing  prints  would 
not  tone  at  all.)  Pour  the  toning  bath  into  the  tray,  place 
the  thermometer  in  the  bath,  and  when  it  registers  55°  Fahr. 
you  are  then  ready  to  commence  toning.  The  warmth  of 
the  hands  will  keep  the  bath  at  about  55°  Fahr.  Should  it 
become  too  cold,  lift  the  tray  from  the  ice  for  a  few  minutes, 
placing  it  on  a  table,  and  the  temperature  of  the  bath  will 
rise  very  rapidly.  It  is  better  to  have  the  bath  too  cold  than 
too  warm. 

391.  When  your  prints  are  made  and  your  bath  is 
ready  for  toning,  in  order  to  avoid  spots  caused  by  perspira- 
tion rinse  your  hands  in  a  weak  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  after  which  wash  and  dry  thoroughly.  Then  place 
prints  for  toning  on  a  cardboard  box  cover  (a  trifle  larger 
than  the  prints  to  tone).  Hold  this  cover  in  the  palm  of 
your  left  hand  and  tear  off  one  side  of  the  cover.  Then, 
with  the  right  hand,  slide  the  prints  face  down,  one  at  a 


Gelatin  Printing-Out  Paper.  223 

time,  into  the  toning  bath,  being  careful  to  cover  the  entire 
print  with  the  toning  solution.  (See  Illustration  No.  54.) 
When  you  have  in  this  manner  placed  one-half  dozen  prints 
in  the  bath,  turn  them  face  up,  and  with  the  finger  tips  of 
your  right  hand  remove  the  little  bubbles  or  air-bells  that 
may  have  gathered  on  the  face  of  the  prints.  These  air- 
bells,  if  not  removed,  will  leave  black  or  yellow  spots.  After 
removing  them,  turn  the  prints  face  down  and  place  half  a 
dozen  more  prints  in  the  bath.  Proceed  with  these  as  with 
the  former  six,  being  careful  to  remove  the  air-bells.  The 
twelve  prints  will  be  enough  to  handle  until  you  become  ac- 
customed to  the  toning, 

392.  As  the  prints  lie  face  down,  draw  out  the  bottom 
print  and  transfer  it  to  the  top,  turning  it  face  up.  Repeat 
this  operation  until  each  of  the  prints,  in  turn,  have  been 
brought  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  and  turned  face  up. 
Then  start  again  with  the  bottom  print,  transferring  it  to 
the  top  and  turning  it  face  down.  Keep  this  up  as  long  as 
the  prints  are  in  the  bath,  the  object  being  to  keep  them 
constantly  in  motion  while  toning.  By  turning  them,  first  face 
up  and  then  face  down,  you  will  always  know  which  print  was 
moved  last,  and  thus  make  sure  that  each  one  receives  its  prop- 
er share  of  handling.  Continue  this  until  the  desired  tone  is 
obtained,  say  twenty  minutes.  If  your  bath  becomes  warm 
the  prints  will  tone  much  faster,  but  the  tone  will  not  be 
permanent.  Therefore,  you  must  watch  and  not  allow  the 
temperature  of  the  bath  to  go  above  55°  Fahr. 

393.  CAUTION— Toning.— If  prints  are  allowed  to 
lie  in  the  tray,  without  being  constantly  separated  and 
moved  about,  they  will  tone  unevenly  and  disagreeable 
streaks  or  spots  will  appear,  completely  ruining  the  prints. 


224  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

394.  While,  as  just  stated,  about  twenty  minutes  will 
be  required  to  properly  tone  and  fix  a  print,  you  should  not 
judge  the  progress  of  toning  by  timing,  but  entirely  by 
watching  the  appearance  of  each  print.  When  first  put  into 
the  bath  it  turns  a  disagreeable  yellow,  but  as  the  toning 
progresses  it  slowly  improves  in  color,  growing  darker, 
more  on  the  brown  or  sepia  tone,  and  the  white  parts  (the 
high-lights)  become  clearer  and  whiter. 

395.  As  soon  as  a  print  has  the  desired  tone,  place  it 
in  a  tray  or  dish  containing  plenty  of  fresh,  clean  water. 
Leave  it  there,  face  down,  until  all  the  remaining  prints  are 
toned.  If,  however,  you  have  many  prints  to  tone,  they 
should  be  handled  over  in  the  fresh  water  several  times 
after  toning,  to  avoid  the  staining  that  is  apt  to  occur  if 
the  prints  lay  packed  for  any  length  of  time  before  a  final 
washing. 

396.  After-Fixing  Bath. — ^To  insure  thorough  fixing, 
which  is  absolutely  necessary  if  you  want  your  prints 
to  be  permanent,  they  should  be  placed  in  the  after 
fixing  bath  prepared  according  to  the  formula  given. 
Before  immersing  in  this  after-fixing  hath,  give  the  prints  three 
changes  of  fresh  water,  and  between  each  change  of  water 
pick  them  over  just  as  you  did  in  toning,  so  as  to  thoroughly 
separate  them,  and  wash  oiT  any  sediment  left  on  the 
prints  from  the  combined  toning  bath.  Then  place  the 
prints  in  the  above  weak  hypo  bath  for  ten  minutes.  This 
bath  can  be  used  until  you  have  fixed  fifty  4x5  prints,  or 
their  equivalent,  when  it  should  be  discarded  and  a  fresh 
after-fixing  bath  made  up. 

397.  CAUTION— Washing.— -The  washing  of  the  prints, 
removes  the  sediment  of  the  combined  toning  bath  still  on  the 


Gelatin  Printing-Out  Paper.  225 

prints.  If  you  carry  this  sediment  into  the  after-fixing  bath 
you  will  have  a  weak  toning  bath,  which  would  act  upon  the 
prints  and  very  likely  spoil  them.  After  fixing  in  this  weak 
hypo,  place  the  prints  in  fresh  water  and  give  them  ten 
changes  in  about  an  hour's  time,  carefully  picking  the  prints 
over  and  over  between  each  change  of  water.  If  the  prints 
are  not  picked  over  and  over  (even  in  running  water)  they 
are  apt  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  tray  and  mat — stick  to- 
gether— and  then  the  toning  and  fixing  chemicals  would  not 
be  eliminated  from  the  prints.  This  changing  of  water  and 
keeping  the  prints  constantly  in  motion  is  very  important. 
If  not  done  properly  the  prints  will  not  be  thoroughly 
washed,  and  as  a  result  will  soon  fade  and  discolor.  After 
washing,  the  prints  are  ready  for  mounting. 

398.  Squeegee. — In  case  you  do  not  wish  to  mount  the 
prints,  dry  them  flat,  by  squeegeeing  them  onto  a  ferrotype 
plate.  Ferrotype  plates  are  tin  plates.  Japanned,  which  can 
be  purchased  at  any  photographic  supply  house.  To  squee- 
gee a  print,  first  clean  the  plate  with  clean  water,  and  then, 
before  placing  the  prints  in  contact,  swab  the  plate  with  the 
following  solution,  rubbing  dry  with  a  clean  rag  or  cotton : 

Benzin     i  ounce 

Paraffin    lo  grains 

399.  Next  place  the  print  in  contact,  face  down,  and 
squeegee  by  covering  it  with  a  dry  blotter  and  rolling  thor- 
oughly with  a  print  roller,  to  expel  all  air-bells.  Then  allow 
it  to  dry.  When  bone  dry  the  print  will  drop  off,  or  can  be 
removed  easily  by  raising  one  corner  with  a  pen-knife. 
Should  the  prints  stick,  the  plate  has  not  been  properly  pre- 
pared and  they  must  be  soaked  off  carefully  in  water  and  the 
plate  gone  over  again,  before  using  a  second  time,  with  the 


226  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

paraffin  solution ;  but  with  care  you  will  have  no  trouble  on 
this  score.  Usually,  where  new  squeegee  plates  are  em- 
ployed they  can  be  used  for  some  time  without  paraffining. 
Should  the  prints  at  any  time  stick  to  the  plate,  you  can 
apply  the  paraffin  and  overcome  this  difficulty. 

400.  Mounting  Glossy  Prints.  —  Squeegeed  glossy 
prints  can  be  mounted  after  squeegeeing,  if  they  are  prepared 
in  the  following  manner :  With  your  prints  squeegeed  onto 
the  ferrotype  plate  and  the  surface  moisture  dried  out,  apply 
a  good  heavy  paste  to  the  back  of  the  prints  (which  are 
still  firmly  held  to  the  ferrotype  plate).  We  recommend 
Higgins'  prepared  paste  for  this  purpose,  or  you  can  pre- 
pare your  own  paste  according  to  the  following  formula : 

401.  Formula  for  Making  Paste. — 

In  some  earthen  dish  or  even  in  an  ordinary  tin  cup,  place 
a.  tablespoon  full  of  common  gloss  starch;  add  to  this  half  a  cup  of 
water.  Stir  the  starch  until  dissolved,  then  place  on  the  stove  to 
cook,  stirring  continuously  until  it  commences  to  thicken;  then  re- 
move from  the  stove,  and  keep  on  stirring  until  all  lumps  are  re- 
moved and  the  paste  is  smooth.  Set  it  to  one  side  to  cool,  after 
which  strain  through  ordinary  cheesecloth.  The  tablespoonful  of 
starch  will  make  enough  paste  for  tifty  to  seventy-five  4x5  prints. 

402.  Note. — Should  you  stir  the  paste  too  long  after  all  lumps 
are  removed  the  paste  will  become  blue  and  transparent,  which  is 
not  as  good  as  when  it  is  pure  white.  Apply  the  paste  with  an  or- 
dinary paste  brush. 

403.  The  paste  will  dry  good  and  firm  as  the  print  dries 
out,  and  although  the  print  will  dry  a  little  slower,  the  paste 
will  be  found  to  adhere  well  when  rewet.  This  will  not  in- 
terfere with  the  handling  of  prints  unmounted,  and  they  can 
be  kept  as  long  as  desired.  Then  when  you  mount  them 
you  can  do  so  in  two  ways.  First,  by  thoroughly  dampening 
that  part  of  the  card  on  which  you  are  going  to  mount  and 
laying  your  print  on  the  card  in  the  proper  manner  and 


GelaHn  Printing^Out  Paper.  Ill 

weighting  it  down — of  course  always  being  sure  to  put  a 
piece  of  plain  paper  over  the  glossy  surface  of  the  print 
before  you  lay  another  card  on  top.  This  weight  will  press 
the  print  firmly  on  the  card  and  the  moisture  on  the  latter 
will  dampen  the  paste  sufficiently  to  make  it  adhere  firmly. 

404.  Secondly,  you  can  wet  the  back  of  the  print  with 
a  damp  sponge — only  wetting  it  sufficiently  to  make  the 
paste  soft.  Then,  by  laying  the  print  on  the  card  and 
weighting,  as  stated  above,  it  will  take  a  very  firm  hold.  Or, 
you  can  adopt  both  methods,  slightly  wetting  the  back  of 
the  print  and  the  face  of  the  card  also.  A  good  squeegee 
roller  is  necessary  in  mounting  dry-prints,  which  previously 
have  been  pasted  while  on  the  ferrotype  plates.  Press  them 
into  place  very  firmly  on  the  cards.  There  is  no  danger  of 
impairing  the  gloss  on  the  print,  providing  you  do  not  touch 
the  surface  with  your  wet  fingers,  or  allow  any  water  to  get 
to  it. 

405.  The  Eastman  Kodak  Co.  supply  a  dry  mounting 
tissue,  which  is  placed  between  the  print  and  card,  and  by 
a  few  seconds'  pressure  with  a  hot  iron  the  print  is  mounted. 
Complete  instructions  for  use  accompany  each  package  of 
tissue. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Printing  and  Toning — Difficulties. 

406.  Depth  of  Printing. — Only  practice  and  close  observation 
can  teach  you  this.  With  the  combined  bath,  where  both  the 
toning  and  the  fixing  are  done  in  one  operation,  the  prints  should 
be  printed  only  a  trifle  darker  than  the  tone  you  desire  for  the  fin- 
ished picture.  Before  removing  prints  from  the  frame,  impress 
upon  your  memory  the  depth  of  each  print,  and  if  you  find,  after 
toning,  that  they  are  too  dark  or  too  light,  govern  yourself  ac- 
cordingly the  next  time  you  are  printing.  With  a  little  practice  you 
will  be  able  to  judge  the  proper  depth. 

407.  Bath  Too  Warm. — Allow  your  tray  containing  the  toning 
and  fixing  bath  to  remain  on  the  ice,  or  you  can  add  a  small  piece 
of  ice  to  the  bath  until  it  is  of  the  proper  temperature.  If  you 
have  no  ice,  allow  running  water  to  flow  into  the  outside  tray.  If 
this  water  is  of  the  proper  temperature  the  bath  will  soon  become 
the  same  temperature. 

408.  Bath  Too  Cold. — ^When  the  toning  bath  is  too  cold,  re- 
move it  from  the  pan  of  ice  until  it  assumes  the  proper  tempera- 
ture. At  all  times  keep  your  thermometer  in  the  toning  bath  and 
watch  it  closely. 

409.  Bath  Tones  Too  Fast — This  is  generally  caused  by  the 
bath  having  become  too  warm.  It  hastens  the  action  of  the  chem- 
icals and  the  print  will  tone  before  it  is  fixed.  It  is  also  apt  to 
produce  sulphurization,  and  although  the  prints  may  have  a  pleas- 
ing tone,  they  are  not  permanent  and  will  fade  in  time.  If  more 
gold  has  been  added  to  the  bath  than  the  formula  calls  for,  it  will 
tone  too  fast. 

410.  Bath  Toning  Too  Slow. — If  the  toning  bath  becomes 
too  cold  the  action  of  the  chemicals  will  be  slow,  and  naturally  it 
will  tone  slowly.  It  is  advisable,  however,  to  have  the  bath  tone 
rather  slow  than  too  fast,  because  slow  toning  insures  perfect  fixing 
and  the  prints  are  more  liable  to  be  permanent. 

411.  Bleaching  of  Prints  in  Toning  Bath. — Bleaching  of 
prints  generally  occurs  when  a  toning  bath  has  been  used  too  long, 

(229) 


230  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

or  when  too  many  prints  have  been  toned  in  it.  The  bath  then 
becomes  over-charged  with  silver  from  the  prints  and  produces 
green  tones,  with  the  whites  very  badly  bleached.  Never  tone 
more  prints  in  a  given  amount  of  toning  solution  than  called  for 
in  the  instructions. 

412.  Bleaching  of  Prints  in  After-fixing  Bath. — If  the  prints 
have  not  been  thoroughly  washed  to  remove  the  toning  solution, 
you  are  apt  to  carry  some  of  the  toning  bath  into  the  after-fixing 
bath;  this  would  make  of  it  a  very  weak  toning  bath  and  the 
prints,  on  account  of  the  excess  of  hypo,  would  not  only  continue 
to  tone,  but  would  be  apt  to  bleach. 

413.  Unable  to  Secure  Blue-black  Tone. — The  combined  bath 
is  not  adapted  and  is  not  intended  for  producing  blue-black 
tones.  If  the  negative  from  which  you  are  printing  is  a  strong 
negative,  you  can  produce  a  purple  tone,  clear  half-tones  and  high- 
lights, and  warm  shadows,  but  the  combined  bath  is  only  intended 
for  warm  tones- 

414.  Toning  Bath  Becoming  Discolored  When  First  Pre- 
pared.— This  will  only  occur  if  the  toning  bath  has  been  made  up 
in  a  tin,  or  in  any  metal  dish.  Whenever  a  metal  dish  is  used  a 
chemical  action  sets  in,  more  especially  in  tin,  which  will  discolor 
the  toning  bath  and  make  it  useless.  Moral — never  use  metal 
trays  for  any  purpose  in  photography. 

415.  Milky  Color  of  Bath  After  Toning  a  Number  of  Prints. — 
— The  bath  will  become  somewhat  milky  with  use,  which  does  no 
harm  if  its  chemical  strength  is  not  exhausted.  After  a  number 
of  prints  have  been  toned  and  the  bath  is  allowed  to  stand,  it  will 
discolor  as  the  light  acts  on  the  silver  released  from  the  prints. 
As  long  as  the  prints  are  clear  and  crisp  it  matters  little;  if  the 
prints  look  muddy,  use  a  fresh  bath. 

416.  Uneven  Tones. — The  prints  will  tone  unevenly  if  they 
are  not  handled  over  and  over  during  toning.  Follow  the  instruc- 
tion and  you  will  have  no  trouble  with  uneven  tones. 

417.  Straight  Lines  on  Toned  Prints.— This  will  only  occur 
when  the  prints  are  allowed  to  lie  in  the  baths  without  picking 
them  over.  Gelatin  prints,  when  wet,  will  sink  to  the  bottom  of 
the  tray  and  stick  together.  Where  one  print  laps  over  the  other 
the  silver  in  the  print  oozes  out  of  the  edge  of  the  print  and  leaves 
a  mark. 

418.  Weak  Prints.— If  the  toning  bath  is  too  cold,  or  the 
prints  are  not  printed  dark  enough,  the  result  will  be  weak  prints. 


Printing  and  Toning — Difficulties.  23 1 

419.  Prints  Tone  in  After-fixing  Bath. — This  can  occur  where 
a  certain  amount  of  toning  bath  has  been  carried  into  the  fixing 
bath  with  the  prints.  Wash  thoroughly  before  placing  in  the 
after-fixing  bath. 

420.  Softening  of  Prints  While  Washing  or  Toning. — This  is 
generally  caused  when  the  toning  bath  becomes  too  warm.  Care- 
fully watch  the  temperature  of  the  bath.  If  the  rinsing  waters  are 
too  warm  they  soften  the  prints.  At  the  slightest  sign  of  softening 
of  the  prints,  prepare  a  very  weak  solution  of  alum,  as  follows: 
To  one-half  ounce  of  saturated  solution  of  alum  add  sixteen  ounces 
of  water.  Of  this  solution  add  just  a  little  to  the  water  and  it  will 
harden  the  surface  of  the  prints.  Thoroughly  wash  the  prints  after 
applying  the  alum  bath,  to  eliminate  all  the  alum. 

421.  Prints  Continue  to  Tone  in  Water  Previous  to  After- 
fixing  Bath. — If  you  are  not  using  enough  water  in  your  tray  the 
toning  bath  which  you  are  carrying  with  your  prints  into  this 
water  will  cause  it  to  become  a  weak  toning  bath  and  the  prints 
will  continue  to  tone.  If  you  are  toning  very  many  prints  change 
the  water  occasionally,  thus  eliminating  all  the  toning  solution. 

422.  Small  Brown  and  Black  Spots. — These  are  caused  by 
air-bells  gathering  on  the  prints.  They  prevent  the  toning  solution 
from  coming  in  contact  with  the  print  and  cause  sulphurization,  a 
gas  being  formed  under  the  air-bell-  Carefully  remove  all  air-bells 
when  the  print  is- first  placed  in  the  toning  bath.  They  will  gather 
on  the  back  as  well  as  on  the  face  of  prints,  and  it  is  advisable  to 
remove  these  also,  as  they  are  apt  to  cause  air-bells  on  the  surface 
of  other  prints. 

423.  Yellow  Stains. — These  are  generally  caused  by  dirty 
dishes,  by  prints  matting  together,  by  the  chemicals  not  having  thor- 
oughly dissolved,  or  by  too  warm  a  toning  bath 

Ferrotyping  Prints — Difficulties. 

424-  Sticking  of  Prints  to  Ferrotype  Plates. — If  the  ferro- 
type plate  has  not  been  thoroughly  cleaned  and  you  fail  to  use  the 
solution  given  in  the  instructions,  the  prints  are  apt  to  stick.  If 
ferrotype  plates  are  used  for  a  long  time,  they  become  old  and 
lose  their  non-adhesive  surface,  and  prints  will  stick  to  them.  Care- 
fully clean  your  ferrotype  plate  and  apply  the  paraffin  according  to 
instructions,  and  you  will  have  no  trouble. 

425.  Dull  Spots  on  Prints  When  Ferrotyped. — When  the 
print  does  not  come  in  perfect  contact  with  the  ferrotype  plate,  air- 


232  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

bells  will  gather  between  the  print  and  the  plate.  Wherever  there 
is  an  air-bell  there  will  be  little  or  no  gloss.  Squeegee  your  print 
in  perfect  contact  with  the  plate  and  you  will  readily  overcome 
this  difficulty. 

426.  Pebble-Like  Spots  on  Print  When  Ferrot3rped. — These 
little  spots,  which  generally  appear  about  the  size  of  a  pin-head,  are 
usually  caused  by  particles  of  dirt  in  the  water.  These  particles 
prevent  the  print  from  coming  in  perfect  contact  with  the  ferrotype 
plate  and,  therefore,  cause  these  pebble-like  spots.  As  these  spots 
will  show  through  on  the  back  of  the  print,  raise  it,  remove  the 
dirt,  and  then  squeegee  it  again,  bringing  the  print  in  perfect  con- 
tact with  the  nlate-  If  necessary,  filter  the  water  and  you  will 
avoid  further  trouble. 

427.  Perfect  Contact  Between  Print  and  Ferrotype  Plate. — 
When  you  place  your  ferrotype  plate  on  the  table  or  bench  see 
that  the  latter  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  that  nothing  is  under  the 
plate,  so  that  when  you  place  your  print  on  it  the  squeegee  will 
pass  over  perfectly  even.  It  may  take  a  little  elbow  grease  to  re- 
move all  air-bells,  but  keep  at  it  until  they  are  removed  and  you 
bring  the  print  in  perfect  contact  with  the  plate. 

428.  Ferrotyped  Prints  Lose  Gloss  Upon  Mounting. — This 
can  only  happen  if  you  allow  moisture  to  reach  the  surface  of  the 
print — damp  blotters  or  damp  fingers  would  cause  it.  Be  careful 
that  only  dry  blotters  are  used  and  that  you  dampen  the  previously 
pasted  print,  or  the  mount,  just  enough  to  make  the  prints  stick. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
Developing  or  "Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades. 

429.  Quite  tinsimilar  to  the  papers  described  in  the  pre- 
vious chapters  are  the  so-called  developing  or  gaslight 
papers.  The  first  name  is  given  to  these  papers  because  the 
image  has  to  be  developed  on  the  paper  in  the  same  way 
as  on  a  plate  or  film,  there  being  no  visible  image  after 
printing.  They  are  called  gaslight,  first  because  the  paper 
may  be  printed  by  gaslight  or  artificial  light  and,  second  be- 
cause these  papers,  being  of  considerable  less  speed  than  a 
dry  plate,  do  not  require  the  use  of  a  dark-room  in  order  to 
develop  the  image,  but  can  be  worked  in  a  room  lighted  with 
gas  or  other  artificial  light,  without  affecting  the  image.  As 
these  papers  are  very  much  more  sensitive  to  light  than 
printing-out  papers,  they  must  be  kept  in  light-tight  boxes 
or  packages ;  and  the  placing  of  the  paper  on  a  negative  to 
be  printed  from  must  be  done  in  subdued  artificial  light. 

430.  With  gaslight  paper,  the  photographer  who  is 
making  pictures  whether  for  pleasure  or  for  profit,  and  who 
may  be  following  his  usual  vocation  during  the  day  and 
spending  his  evenings  and  spare  moments  only  at  this  pleas- 
ant and  profitable  profession,  is  enabled  to  make  prints  by 
oil,  gas  or  electric  light.  There  is  no  waiting  for  sunshine, 
which  is  the  case  when  making  prints  on  a  printing-out 
paper. 

431.  There  are  many  brands  of  developing  papers.  The 
most  popular  are  the  Velox,  Azo,  Argo,  Cyko  and  Artura. 

(232) 


234  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Each  brand  is  made  in  at  least  two  grades,  regular  and 
special. 

432.  All  manufacturers  place  their  products  on  the 
market,  in  cut  sheets  to  suit  the  different  sized  plates  or 
films  used.  There  are  twelve  sheets  to  the  smallest  pack- 
age, although  the  paper  is  put  up  in  two  dozen,  half  gross 
and  gross  packages,  as  well. 

433.  To  meet  the  requirements  of  the  printing  qualities 
of  all  kinds  of  negatives,  gaslight  papers  are  manufactured 
in  various  grades  of  paper  and  emulsion,  but  in  this  instruc- 
tion we  will  only  treat  with  the  regular  grades.  The  special 
grades  are  dealt  with  in  the  advanced  instruction  on  print- 
ing, Vol.  IV. 

434.  Developing  Powders. — There  are  many  prepared 
developing  powders  which  can  be  procured,  and  each  manu- 
facturer claims  that  his  brand  is  the  best  for  his  particular 
paper.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  truth  in  this;  yet, 
with  the  exception  of  a  slight  difference  in  the  proportion 
of  the  various  ingredients,  all  developers  are  practically  the 
same.  All  contain  a  developing  agent,  such  as  metol,  ortol, 
hydroquinon,  etc.,  also  sulphite  of  soda,  either  potassium  or 
sodium  carbonate,  and  bromide  of  potassium. 

435.  The  developing  powders  should  be  dissolved  in  a 
given  amount  of  water  and  then  placed  in  a  bottle,  corked 
and  labeled.  When  ready  to  develop,  pour  from  the  bottle 
enough  of  the  developer  to  fully  cover  the  print.  The  used 
developer  should  be  saved  and  poured  into  a  separate  bottle. 
A  little  fresh  stock  solution  added  to  the  old  bath  the  next 
time  you  are  developing  makes  it  as  good  as  new. 

436.  The  beginner  can  make  no  mistake  in  using  these 
prepared  developing  powders,  but  he  must  carefully  mix  ac- 


Developing  or  *'Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades.  237 

cording  to  the  manufacturer's  instructions  printed  on  the 
package. 

437.  Fixing  Bath. — After  a  print  is  developed  it  is  only 
partly  completed,  for  it  is  yet  sensitive  to  light.  All  sensitive 
salts  that  have  not  been  affected  by  either  light  or  developer 
must  be  removed  before  allowing  a  strong  light  to  fall  on  the 
print.  This  is  accomplished  by  immersing  the  print  in  an- 
other solution,  termed  the  fixing  bath.  The  fixing  bath 
used  for  gaslight  papers  is  dififerent  from  the  ordinary  fixing 
bath.  The  ordinary  plain  fixing  bath  is  composed  of  four 
parts  of  pure  water  and  one  part  of  hypo.  This  plain  fixing 
bath  is  used  for  fixing  dry  plates  or  films  and  also  in  a  diluted 
form  for  fixing  printing-out  papers,  but  as  gaslight  papers 
are  coated  with  a  gelatin  emulsion,  and  the  chemicals  used 
for  developing  are  strongly  alkaline,  the  print,  when  devel- 
oped, is  very  soft.  There  would  be  danger  of  stain  and  dis- 
coloration unless  it  were  treated  in  a  hardening  bath ;  there- 
fore do  not  use  plain  fixing  bath,  but  an  "acid  fixing  bath," 
which  will  harden  the  emulsion  and  clear  the  print  as  well. 
The  acid  hypo  can  be  obtained  from  any  dealer.  It  is  put 
up  in  wooden  or  pasteboard  boxes,  and  to  be  ready  for  use 
only  requires  dissolving  in  water,  according  to  the  given 
directions. 

438.  Printing. — In  addition  to  the  trays  and  solutions 
for  developing,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  printing  frame  the 
size  of  the  largest  plate  or  film  from  which  you  are  to  print. 
By  fitting  a  piece  of  clean,  clear  glass  in  the  printing  frame 
any  smaller  size  negative  can  be  printed  from  equally  as  well 
as  if  the  actual  size  frame  were  used. 

439.  To  begin  with,  two  dozen  sheets  of  what  is  known 
as  the  regular  grade  of  paper  should  be  sufficient.     But  as 


238  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

gaslight  paper,  if  kept  in  a  dry  place,  will  last  for  months, 
it  would  be  economy  to  keep  a  supply  of  a  few  dozen  or 
one-half  gross  on  hand.  For  the  information  of  those  with- 
out experience  in  the  manipulation  of  developing  papers,  we 
would  say  that  the  image  is  not  visible  on  the  paper  while 
printing,  but  appears  only  when  it  is  placed  in  the  developing 
solution. 

440.  As  stated  in  a  former  paragraph,  the  different 
manufacturers  make  many  grades  of  papers,  yet  for  the  be- 
ginner we  would  advise  the  use  of  the  "regular"  grades  only. 
In  subsequent  instructions  you  will  be  taught  how  and  when 
to  use  the  different  "special"  grades.  The  regular  carbon 
grade  papers  are  intended  for  thin  negatives,  and  as  most 
beginners'  negatives  are  thin,  better  general  results  will  be 
obtained  with  this  paper. 

441.  Printing  and  Developing  Outfit. 

While  it  is  possible  to  get  along  very  nicely  with  but 
two  trays,  one  for  developing  and  the  other  for  fixing,  pro- 
vided an  ordinary  clean  wash  bowl  can  be  used  for  final 
washing,  yet,  as  the  majority  of  failures  are  due  to  the  care- 
less handling  of  the  prints,  we  recommend  the  following: 

1  5x8  tray,  to  be  used  for  developing  only. 

1  5x8  tray,  to  be  used  for  fixing  bath  only. 

1  5x8  tray,  to  be  used  for  intermediate  washing. 

1  5x8  tray,  to  be  used  for  final  washing. 

1  printing  frame,  size  of  largest  plate  used. 

1  package  of  printing  paper. 

1  8-ounce  glass  graduate. 

1  glass  stirring  rod. 

1  package  or  tube  of  developing  powder. 


Developing  or  "Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades.  239 

1  package  of  "acid  hypo." 

1  ounce  of  bromide  of  potassium. 

1  dozen  sheets  non-linting  blotting  paper. 

442.  The  above  outfit  is  for  printing  and  finishing  4x5 
or  5x7  prints.  If  larger  prints  are  to  be  made,  the  trays 
should  be  in  proportion.  Again,  we  would  caution  you  to 
use  the  respective  trays  only  for  the  purpose  intended,  viz., 
developer  tray  for  developing,  hypo  tray  for  fixing,  and 
water  tray  for  washing.  Label  each  tray  so  that  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  mistake,  for  should  the  hypo  tray  be  used 
for  developing,  even  after  very  careful  washing,  a  slight 
trace  of  the  fixing  salt  may  ruin  the  developer  and  cause  the 
prints  to  be  spotted.  It  is,  therefore,  very  important  that 
each  tray  be  used  for  one  purpose  only. 

443.  Artificial  Light. — While  it  is  perfectly  practical 
to  make  prints  by  daylight,  yet,  for  the  first  experiments,  we 
advise  the  use  of  artificial  light  (kerosene  lamp,  gas  or  elec- 
tric light).  Daylight  being  so  much  stronger,  the  beginner 
is  apt  to  meet  with  many  failures,  while  artificial  light  allows 
of  more  latitude  and  less  danger  of  over-printing. 

444.  Loading  the  Printing  Frame. — First,  with  a  soft 
cloth  remove  all  dust  from  the  printing  frame  and  cover; 
then  with  the  same  cloth  clean  the  glass  side  of  the  negative. 
If  a  film  negative  is  used,  the  back  of  the  film  must  be  care- 
fully cleaned  and  the  plain  glass  that  is  used  in  the  printing 
frame,  to  support  the  film  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  on 
both  sides.  Next,  lay  the  frame  on  the  table,  remove  the 
back,  and  place  the  negative — gelatin  side  up — in  the  frame. 
Lift  one  end  of  the  negative  up  above  the  printing  frame; 
then,  with  a  camel's  hair  brush  (or  a  piece  of  soft  cloth), 
carefully  dust  the  plate  by  drawing  the  brush  over  the  neg- 


240  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

ative.  If  brushed  without  raising  the  negative  out  of  the 
frame,  the  dust  would  only  be  carried  from  the  plate  into 
the  edges  of  the  frame,  where  it  will  cause  white  specks  on 
the  print.  (See  Illustration  No.  49.)  Next,  on  the  shaded 
side  of  the  table  (See  Paragraph  449),  away  from  the  direct 
light,  place  the  printing  paper  on  the  negative,  having  the 
sensitive  side  of  the  paper  come  in  contact  with  the  film  side 
of  the  negative. 

445.  The  sensitive  surface  side  of  the  paper  must  come 
in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  negative.  To  detect  the 
sensitive  side,  you  will  note  that  these  papers  are  packed 
in  small  packages,  face  to  face,  while  in  gross  boxes  the 
paper  is  packed  all  facing  one  way.  The  paper,  almost 
always,  curls  a  little,  the  sensitive  side  curling  in. 

446.  In  the  regular  medium  weight  papers,  one  can 
judge  the  sensitive  side  by  the  sense  of  touch.  Catching 
one  corner  of  the  paper  between  the  thumb  and  the  first  fin- 
ger, the  side  that  feels  smooth  is  the  sensitive  side.  Of 
course  the  fingers  must  be  perfectly  dry  or  they  will  stain 
the  print.  Another  test  is  to  bite  a  corner  of  the  sheet  and 
the  side  adhering  to  the  teeth  is  the  emulsion  side.  A  fur- 
ther test  is  to  moisten  the  thumb  and  forefinger  just  a  little, 
squeeze  the  corner  of  the  paper,  and  the  sticky  side  is  sensi- 
tive. Testing  the  first  sheet  of  the  package  will  supply  you 
with  the  key  to  the  remaining  sheets  without  previous  test- 
ing. Remember  that  the  paper  is  packed  face  to  face,  in  small 
packages,  and  all  one  way  in  gross  packages,  and  also  that  it 
curls  slightly  toward  the  sensitive  side.  The  paper  must 
be  kept  dry  and  away  from  any  water  or  trays  containing 
water. 

447.  Having  placed  the  sensitive  paper  on  the  negative, 


Developing  or  *' Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades,  241 

next  place  the  back  of  the  printing  frame  in  position,  press 
it  down  and  fasten  both  springs.  The  negative  is  now  ready 
for  printing. 

448.  The  accompanying  half-tone  will  illustrate  the 
printing  by  a  kerosene  lamp ;  however,  the  same  procedure 
can  be  applied  to  any  light. 

449.  In  Illustration  No.  55,  a  lady,  in  the  act  of  print- 
ing, is  seated  at  the  end  of  a  table,  on  which  is  placed  the 
lamp.  One-half  of  the  table  is  shaded  by  a  large  piece  of 
cardboard,  which  is  placed  in  the  center.  The  distance  the 
printing  frame  is  held  from  the  light  is  equal  to  the  diagonal 
measurement  of  the  negative,  which  distance  is  necessary  to 
secure  an  even  illumination  of  the  negative.  After  sufficient 
exposure  has  been  given,  she  returns  to  the  other  end  of 
the  table  (shaded  end,  see  Illustration  No.  56).  Here,  be- 
sides the  box  or  package  of  paper,  are  the  different  trays, 
as  labeled — developing,  washing  and  hypo — all  ready  for  use. 
The  sheet  of  cardboard  between  the  lamp  and  the  trays 
excludes  all  direct  light,  but  allows  sufficient  diffused  light 
for  the  student  to  watch  the  development  of  the  print.  As 
this  cardboard  is  to  prevent  the  direct  rays  of  light  from 
striking  the  trays  or  paper,  it  should  be  fully  16x20  inches 
in  size. 

450.  To  hold  the  cardboard  in  position  a  number  of 
books  can  be  placed  on  the  table,  but  it  would  be  much  bet- 
ter to  have  a  wooden  base  to  prevent  tipping;  or,  in  place 
of  this  cardboard  make  a  light  wooden  frame,  16x20,  and 
cover  it  with  yellow  postoffice  paper.  This  will  give  more 
light,  and  the  light  coming  through  the  yellow  postoffice 
paper  will  do  no  harm  to  the  sensitized  paper  or  the  prints 
while  developing. 


242  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

451.  Exposure. — In  making  the  first  exposure,  cut  a 
sheet  of  the  sensitized  paper  into  narrow  strips  (about  an 
inch  wide).  One  of  these  should  be  placed  on  that  part 
of  the  negative  showing  the  highest  point  of  light  as  well 
as  the  deepest  shadow.  (This  is  done,  of  course,  when 
loading  the  printing  frame.)  As  stated  in  a  former  para- 
graph, the  distance  to  hold  the  printing  frame  from  the 
light  is  the  diagonal  measurement  of  the  negative,  or,  for 
a  4x5  plate  from  6  to  7  inches.  Weak  or  thin  negatives  re- 
quire less  time  than  dense  or  strong  negatives. 

452.  Thin  negatives,  or  negatives  of  average  density 
(size  4x5  or  smaller),  printed  on  the  regular  or  carbon 
grades,  will  require  about  50  seconds'  exposure  to  an  oil 
lamp,  about  30  seconds  to  a  16  C.  P.  electric  or  4-foot  gas 
burner,  and  about  10  seconds  to  a  Welsbach  burner.  If, 
after  developing,  you  find  the  print  too  light  or  too  dark, 
try  another  strip  of  the  sensitive  paper,  being  governed  in 
the  second  exposure  by  the  result  secured  on  the  first  strip. 
If  the  print  flashes  up  instantly  in  the  developer  and  turns 
dark  in  a  second  or  two,  you  will  understand  that  it  is  over- 
exposed and  half  the  exposure  will  be  sufficient.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  print  develops  slowly  and  gradually  turns 
gray  and  foggy,  more  exposure  must  be  given.  If  the  print 
develops  flat  with  proper  exposure,  dilute  the  developer 
with  water — about  one-fourth — and  you  will  gain  more  con- 
trast. If  the  print  develops  contrasty  use  full  strength  de- 
veloper, as  the  weak  developer  gives  contrast  and  the  strong 
developer  gives  softness  even  to  flatness. 

453.  Negatives  vary  greatly  in  density  and  lamps 
supply  different  strengths  of  light,  so  it  is  impossible  to 
give  definite  directions  for  making  the  exposure.  Until  you 


Illustration  \o   55 

Printing;  at    End  of  1  able 

See  Paragraph   No.  449 


Illustration  No.  56 

Developing  at  Table 

See  Paragraph  No.  449 


Illustration  No.  57 
Applying  Paste 

to  Back  of  Print 

See  Paragraph 

No.  468 


Illustration  No.  5 8 

Method  of  Picking  Up  Prints  after  Applying  Paste 

See  Paragraph  No.  468 


Illustration  No.  59 
Bringing  Paste  Side  of 

Print  into  Contact 

with  Mount 

See  Paragraph  No.  468 


Developing  or  "Gaslight'*  Papers — Regular  Grades.  245 

learn  to  judge  the  density  of  the  negative  you  should  always 
use  the  test  strip.  When  the  correct  exposure  is  obtained 
in  this  way,  a  full  size  sheet  of  paper  can  then  be  printed 
and  all  subsequent  prints  should  be  equally  good. 

454.  Compare  the  next  negative  you  wish  to  print  from 
with  the  first  one,  being  guided  by  the  exposure  given  that 
one.  In  a  short  time  you  will  be  able  to  estimate  the  ex- 
posure required  for  any  negative. 

455.  Recording  Exposures. — A  good  plan,  after  having 
ascertained  the  correct  exposure  for  a  negative,  is  to  write 
on  one  corner  of  the  film,  with  ink,  the  number  of  seconds 
required  to  print  and  the  kind  of  light  used.  The  initial 
letter  is  sufficient.  In  this  way,  when  printing  from  this 
negative  again  you  will  not  have  to  experiment  to  get  the 
exact  exposure. 

456.  Note:  Always  load  the  printing  frame  in  dif- 
fused light,  behind  the  cardboard  or  yellow  postoffice  paper 
screen;  also  develop  by  the  same  kind  of  light.  Cover  the 
box  containing  the  paper  immediately  after  loading  the 
frame,  as  exposure  to  white  light  or  even  constant  exposure 
to  subdued  light  would  ruin  it.  By  following  the  above 
rule  you  will  avoid  fog  and  waste  of  paper. 

457.  Developing. — Suppose  that  the  exposure  has  been 
made  and  that  everything  is  in  readiness  to  develop  the 
print.  All  trays  having  been  thoroughly  cleansed,  place 
the  tray  labeled  "developer"  to  the  left,  near  the  cardboard 
partition,  a  tray  of  clear  water  next,  and  the  fixing  tray 
behind  the  water.  Fill  the  water  tray  a  little  over  half  with 
clear  water;  prepare  the  acid  hypo  bath  in  the  fixing  tray, 
then  wash  your  hands  thoroughly  so  as  not  to  carry  any 
trace  of  the  hypo  into  the  developer,  and  next  pour  enough 


246  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

developer  into  the  developing  tray  to  fully  cover  the  print. 

458.  Use  plenty  of  developer  and  keep  it  cool.  Im- 
merse the  print — face  up — sliding  it  underneath  the  solution 
quickly,  and  covering  the  whole  surface  of  the  print  evenly 
with  one  sweep  of  the  developer.  Regular  or  carbon  papers 
should  be  developed  in  about  fifteen  seconds.  Should  air- 
bells  form  on  the  surface  of  the  print,  when  first  placed  in 
the  developer,  break  them  at  once  with  a  tuft  of  cotton, 
(kept  on  hand  for  the  purpose),  dipped  in  the  solution,  or 
with  the  tip  of  the  finger.  If  not  broken,  white  spots — 
undeveloped  spots — will  be  left  on  the  print.  Never  dip 
the  fingers  into  the  developer,  after  having  them  in  the  hypo, 
without  first  thoroughly  washing  the  hands.  To  do  so 
would  ruin  the  developing  bath.  Always  remember  that 
hypo  is  a  bitter  enemy  to  all  other  chemicals,  and  a  single 
drop  of  hypo  in  any  other  bath  would  be  likely  to  ruin  it. 

459.  Restrainer. — If  the  high-lights  (whitest  parts  of 
picture)  are  gray  and  the  print  has  developed  clear  detail, 
it  is  apparent  that  sufficient  exposure  has  been  given,  and 
the  gray  tone  comes  from  too  rapid  development.  The 
bath  must,  therefore,  be  restrained  by  adding  a  few  drops 
of  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  potassium  bromide  to  the  de- 
veloper. The  10  per  cent,  solution  is  made  by  dissolving 
one  ounce  of  potassium  bromide  crystals  in  9  ounces  of 
pure  water.  Be  very  careful  not  to  use  more  of  the  potas- 
sium bromide  solution  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  keep 
the  whites  clear,  as  an  excess  of  the  restraining  agent  will 
not  only  retard  development  and  produce  contrasty  prints, 
but  will  produce  greenish  prints  as  well. 

460.  Fixing. — Watch  the  print  carefully  during  de- 
velopment, and  agitate  the  developer  by  moving  the  print 


Developing  or  ** Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades.  247 

around.  When  it  is  dark  enough  remove  it  from  the  bath. 
Act  quickly,  as  the  print  grows  darker  each  second,  and 
the  development  will  continue  until  the  print  is  immersed 
in  the  hypo  bath.  Upon  removing  the  print  from  the  de- 
veloper, dip  it  in  fresh  water  (which  should  be  in  the  second 
tray)  for  a  second,  and  then  place  immediately  in  the  third 
tray  containing  the  acid  fixing  bath. 

461.  Handling  Prints  in  the  Fixing  Bath. — Each  print, 
as  it  enters  the  fixing  bath,  should  be  turned  over  several 
times,  that  the  hypo  may  act  evenly  on  the  entire  print. 
After  the  print  is  thoroughly  immersed,  there  is  no  danger 
of  staining  from  laying  in  the  bath  until  all  the  prints  are 
developed.  They  should  be  handled  in  the  fixing  bath,  one 
at  a  time,  care  being  taken  that  air-bells  do  not  form,  as 
they  will  cause  yellow  stains  on  the  prints.  This  stain  is 
due  to  the  continued  action  of  the  developer  still  in  the 
emulsion,  which  has  not  been  stopped  by  the  hypo.  Do  not 
leave  the  prints  packed  together.  Keep  them  separated, 
and  leave  them  in  the  fixing  bath  for  fully  fifteen  minutes, 
meanwhile  moving  them  continually. 

462.  Use  the  left  hand  for  handling  the  prints  in  the 
developer  and  rinse  water.  Use  the  right  hand  for  the  prints 
in  the  fixing  bath  and  final  wash  water.  Make  this  a  rule, 
stick  to  it,  and  you  will  avoid  much  trouble. 

463.  Where  small  batches  of  prints  are  made,  the  hypo 
bath  may  be  used  continually,  but  do  not  fix  more  than  thir- 
ty 4x5  prints  in  16  ounces  of  hypo  solution.  If  you  attempt 
more  than  this  number  some  of  the  prints  are  apt  to  be 
unfixed,  even  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  bath  a  longer  time, 
and  they  will  not  be  permanent.     This  is  due  to  the  fact 


248  Library  of  Practical  Photography 

that  sensitive  salts  still  remain  in  the  print,  and  when  these 
are  continually  exposed  to  the  light  they  turn  brown. 

464.  The  temperature  of  the  fixing  bath  should  not  be 
above  65°,  but  it  may  be  cooler.  The  prints  can  remain 
in  the  bath  fifteen  minutes,  providing  it  is  cool.  If  the  bath 
becomes  warm  the  acetic  acid  becomes  more  active,  giving 
the  solution  a  milky  appearance  and  deteriorating  it  very 
rapidly — often  producing  yellow  and  muddy  prints. 

465.  Washing  the  Prints. — The  prints  should  be 
washed,  after  fixing,  at  least  one-half  hour  in  running 
water,  during  which  time  they  should  be  handled  over  and 
over.  As  the  surface  of  these  prints  is  a  gelatin  emulsion, 
they  stick  together  as  soon  as  they  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tray  and  will  not  wash.  If  you  are  not  supplied  with  run- 
ning water  the  prints  may  be  washed  by  hand.  For  this 
purpose  two  trays  should  be  used,  filling  them  with  water, 
then  passing  the  prints — one  at  a  time — first  from  one  tray  to 
the  other,  and  then  refilling  each  tray  with  fresh  water  after 
all  the  prints  have  been  removed.  Ten  changes  by  hand 
should  be  sulficient  to  remove  all  traces  of  chemicals.  Prints 
will  change  color,  in  a  very  short  time,  when  these  chemicals 
are  not  removed. 

466.  After  thorough  washing  the  prints  should  be 
mopped  off  with  dry  blotters,  and  placed  face  down  on 
cheese-cloth.  This  will  prevent  curling  to  a  certain  extent. 
If  overlapped  or  piled  upon  each  other  they  will  stick  to- 
gether. When  blotted  off  with  non-linting  blotters  before 
laying  on  the  cloth,  they  will  dry  much  faster.  To  have 
the  prints  lie  perfectly  flat  after  they  become  surface  dry, 
lay  them  between  sheets  of  plain  cardboard  on  a  table, 


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Developing  or  **Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades.  251 

under  a  light  weight,  for  about  ten  hours  or  more,  when 
they  will  remain  perfectly  flat. 

467.  Trimming  Prints. — If  prints  are  to  be  mounted, 
trim  while  wet,  in  the  following  manner:  Take  a  square 
sheet  of  glass,  wet  it  and  place  the  print — face  down — on  the 
same.  Turn  the  glass  over  and  the  prints  will  then  be  on 
the  under  side — face  up.  Move  the  print  to  the  edge  of  the 
glass,  and  with  a  pair  of  sharp  shears  trim  one  end  of  the 
print ;  then  slide  the  print  to  the  other  edge  of  the  glass,  and 
square  it  to  the  trimmed  edge  of  the  print,  and  trim  in  a 
like  manner.  After  the  print  is  trimmed,  place  it  back  in 
the  tray  of  water  and  proceed  in  like  manner  with  the  rest 
of  the  prints  until  all  are  trimmed ;  then  lay  them  out  on  a 
glass  plate  or  other  smooth  surface,  face  side  down,  one 
print  overlapping  the  other  until  all  are  on  the  plate.  If 
you  desire  to  trim  prints  when  they  are  dry,  a  trimming 
board  may  be  used. 

468.  Mounting  Prints. — Remove  the  excess  water,  by 
pressing  the  prints  with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  then 
with  a  dry  blotter.  With  a  paste  brush  apply  ordinary 
starch  or  prepared  paste  to  the  back  of  the  top  print.  (See 
Illustration  No.  57,  applying  paste.)  Pick  the  print  up  at 
one  corner  (See  Illustration  No.  58),  bringing  the  paste 
side  in  contact  with  the  mount  (See  Illustration  No.  59). 
After  carefully  squaring  the  print  on  the  mount,  place  a 
clean,  dry  blotter  over  it  and  rub  down  with  the  ball  of  the 
hand,  or  with  a  squeegee  roller,  removing  all  air  bubbles 
and  securing  perfect  contact  with  the  mount.  Allow  it  then 
to  dry.  Any  superfluous  paste  on  the  print  or  mount 
should  be  removed  with  a  soft  wet  sponge.  For  further 
instruction  on  Trimming  and  Mounting,  see  Chapter  XXV. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Developing  Papers — DifEculties. 

469.  Print  Refuses  to   Develop. — If  the  print  was  properly 

exposed  and  the  sensitive  side  of  the  paper  was  next  to  the  plate, 
and  the  print  still  refuses  to  develop,  you  may  have  made  a  mistake 
in  preparing  your  chemicals,  or  you  may  have  become  confused 
regarding  the  trays  and  are  trying  to  develop  with  the  hypo  bath. 
Be  very  careful  to  label  each  bath  and  tray. 

470.  Green  Tones. — These  are  generally  caused  either  by 
using  too  much  bromide,  by  over-exposing,  or  by  using  too  weak 
or  too  old  a  developer. 

471.  Gray  Whites. — If  there  is  not  enough  bromide  in  the 
developer,  the  whites  will  turn  gray.  Add  a  few  more  drops  of 
your  10  per  cent,  solution  of  bromide.  If  the  print  is  under-printed 
and  forced  in  development,  it  will  cause  a  graying  of  the  whites. 
It  is  also  possible  that  the  paper  has  been  fogged  by  white  or 
actinic  light  before  printing  or  during  development. 

472.  Irregular  Stains  or  Blotches  are  usually  caused  by  not 
flowing  the  entire  print  with  one  sweep  of  the  developer;  too 
long  development  before  fixing;  not  keeping  prints  moving  in  the 
hypo  bath. 

473.  Stains  All  Over  the  Print  may  come  from  any  of  the 
following  causes:  By  forcing  development  of  an  under-exposed 
print;  by  using  too  weak  a  developer;  by  not  fixing  sufficiently; 
or  by  not  washing  carefully  after  fixing. 

474.  Yellow  Whites  are  caused  by  under-printing  and  then 
trying  to  force  the  print  by  prolonged  development. 

475.  Prints  Too  Light. — If  your  prints  are  too  light  it  is 
probably  because  you  have  under-printed.  Give  a  little  longer  ex- 
posure. 

476.  Prints  Too  Black. — Possibly  over  printed.    Expose  less- 

477.  Weak  Prints. — Possibly  the  negative  was  too  contrasty. 
Use  full  strength  developer  and  be  careful  not  to  under-print. 

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254  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

478.  Flat  Prints. — Negative  is  probably  very  thin,  weak  in 
the  high-lights  and  weak  in  the  shadows.  Dilute  your  developer 
about  one-half,  and  be  careful  not  to  over-print.  Remember,  that 
diluting  developer  on  gaslight  papers  gives  contrast;  strong  de- 
veloper gives  softness. 

479.  Print  Too  Dark  After  Fixing. — This  would  indicate  that 
the  print  was  fully  exposed,  and  should  not  be  carried  quite  so  far 
in  the  developer.  Full  timed  exposures  can  be  improved  by  remov- 
ing the  print  from  the  developer  just  before  it  is  dark  enough.  It 
will  develop  a  trifle  in  the  water,  and  unless  thoroughly  rinsed  will 
continue  to  darken  until  it  reaches  the  hypo  bath. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper. 

480.  Eastman  W.  D.  Paper.— The  W.  D.  Platinum 
Paper,  manufactured  by  the  Eastman  Kodak  Company,  is  a 
paper  not  unUke  the  regular  platinum  paper,  and  on  which 
pure  platinum  and  absolutely  permanent  tones  can  be  ob- 
tained. It  is  especially  adapted  for  the  amateur,  on  account 
of  its  extreme  simplicity  of  manipulation,  as  it  requires 
nothing  but  water  and  acid  for  the  entire  process  of  de- 
velopment and  clearing.  When  using  this  paper  follow 
the  instructions  which  are  furnished  by  the  manufacturer 
and  accompany  each  package.  We  would  call  your  atten- 
tion to  the  following  points,  which  must  be  remembered : 

481.  Effect  of  Moisture.— "Water-Tone"  Platinum 
Paper  is  very  easily  affected  by  moisture ;  it  will,  therefore, 
be  necessary  to  exercise  care  when  printing  in  damp 
weather. 

482.  Print  by  direct  light  (sunlight  preferred)  until  the 
shadows  are  clearly  outlined  in  a  deep  canary  color.  At  this 
stage  the  same  detail  will  be  observed  in  the  half  tones  that 
the  finished  print  will  show.  For  developing,  use  plain 
water,  heated  to  120°  (which  will  be  as  hot  as  the  hands 
can  bear). 

483.  The  development  will  be  practically  instantan- 
eous, and  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  air  bubbles  forming 
upon  the  surface  of  the  prints.    Place  the  prints,  after  de- 

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256  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

veloping,  directly  into  a  clearing  bath  of  muriatic  acid,  one 
dram  to  twelve  ounces  of  water,  and  let  them  remain  in 
this  bath  about  ten  minutes,  when  they  are  ready  for  the 
final  washing  of  fifteen  minutes  in  running  water,  or  five 
changes  of  about  three  minutes  each.  Lay  out  between 
blotters  to  dry  and  mount  by  applying  paste  to  the  corners. 

484.  Keeping  the  Paper  in  Good  Condition. — This 
paper  is  put  up  in  tin  tubes  and  sealed  with  rubber  tape. 
This  is  to  prevent  the  air  from  coming  in  contact  with  the 
paper  and  to  keep  it  free  from  all  moisture.  If  the  can  is 
left  open  for  any  length  of  time  the  air  will  affect  the  paper 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  pro- 
duce good  prints. 

485.  The  eflfect  of  dampness  is  a  lack  of  vigor,  a  gen- 
eral muddiness  of  the  tones,  and  where  the  paper  has  been 
exposed  to  its  influence  for  some  time  it  injures  the  purity 
of  the  whites.  The  paper  will  keep  for  months,  but  must 
be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  in  the  cans  in  which  the 
paper  is  supplied.  When  paper  is  removed  from  the  tube, 
see  that  the  sheets  not  intended  for  immediate  use  are  re- 
turned to  the  tube  and  the  tube  again  carefully  sealed  with 
the  tape. 

486.  Depth  of  Printing. — It  will  require  a  little  prac- 
tice to  be  able  to  print  to  the  proper  depth.  The  paper 
should  be  printed  only  until  the  image  is  fairly  visible,  and 
then  developed  with  hot  water,  no  chemicals  being  needed. 
As  this  paper  is  easily  affected  by  moisture,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  in  warm,  damp  weather  the  print  will  show 
quite  a  tendency  to  print  out  black  in  the  deep  shadows. 
Pay  attention  only  to  the  high-lights,  as  the  same 
amount  of  printing  is  necessary  as  on  dry  days.     In  fact. 


Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper.  257 

in  damp  weather  you  must  print  a  trifle  stronger  than  in 
dry  weather. 

487.  Clearing  Bath. — The  muriatic  acid  used  in  the 
clearing  bath  must  be  chemically  pure  or  yellow  whites 
will  result.  The  necessary  developing  cheimcals  are  al- 
ready in  the  paper.  Never  use  any  hot  water  which  con- 
tains iron  rust,  as  this  iron  rust  will  cause  black  specks 
on  the  paper.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  air-bells 
forming  on  the  surface  of  the  print.  If  they  occur  and 
they  are  not  broken  at  once  white  spots  will  be  produced. 
Remember : 

1.  That  the  paper  must  be  kept  dry  at  all  times. 

2.  Placing  the  paper  on  the  negative,  or  examining  prints, 

must  be  done  in  weak,  subdued  day  or  gaslight,  or  the 
high-lights  will  become  fogged. 

3.  When  developing  slide  the  print  face  side  up  into  the  hot 

water,  so  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  air-bells.  If 
any  air-bells  should  form,  break  them  at  once  by  touch- 
ing with  the  tips  of  the  fingers. 

4.  Prints  must  be  placed  directly  from  the  hot  water  into 

the  acid  clearing  bath  without  previous  washing. 

5.  The  last  clearing  bath  must  be  free  from  all  yellowness; 

then  you  can  feel  sure  that  your  prints  are  cleared 
thoroughly. 

6.  Chemically  pure  hydrochloric  acid   (muriatic  acid)   must 

be  used  in  the  clearing  bath,  and  a  fresh  bath  must  be 
used  for  each  batch  of  prints. 

488.  Mounting. — Prints  may  be  mounted  solid  in  the 
usual  way,  by  using  any  good  starch  paste,  and  bringing 
the  print  into  contact  with  a  print  roller.  Usually  these 
prints  look  better  when  only  pasted  at  the  edge.  In  order 
to  do  this  they  must  be  first  dried  by  mopping  off  the  sur- 
plus water  and  then  placing  between  blotters  for  several 
hours.    Usually  it  is  best  to  place  them  in  the  blotters,  and 


258  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

after  changing  to  dry  blotters  once,  allow  them  to  remain 
over  night.  The  following  morning  they  will  be  dry  and 
flat  ready  for  pasting  to  the  card  or  mount. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

489.  A  good  method  of  development  is  to  hold  the  print 
over  steaming  water  until  development  is  nearly  completed  and 
then  immerse  for  a  few  seconds  in  hot  water.  This  method  gives 
particularly  rich,  brilliant  prints. 

490.  When  negatives  are  under-timed  or  weak  thin  nega- 
tives are  to  be  printed  from,  strength  can  be  gained  by  printing 
under  blue  glass;  printing  in  the  shade  will  also  add  to  the  brillian- 
cy of  prints  from  such  negatives. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Aristo  Gold  Paper. 

Aristo  Gold  Paper  is  a  collodion  matt  surface  paper,  requir- 
ing no  toning  bath,  the  emulsion  containing  the  necessary  ton- 
ing chemicals. 

Directions. 

491.  Printing. — Print  Aristo  Gold  Paper  like  you 
would  regular  gelatin  printing-out  paper,  according  to  the 
depth  of  tone  desired  in  the  finished  print;  but  if  a  good, 
strong  print  is  desired,  you  should  print  until  the  high- 
lights (the  whitest  parts)  are  slightly  bronzed.  The  char- 
acter of  tone  depends  on  the  depth  of  printing.  Make  a  trial 
of  two  or  three  prints,  printed  to  various  degrees,  as  a  guide 
for  the  tone  you  most  desire. 

492.  Sepia  Tones. — Wash  the  prints  thoroughly  in  six 
changes  of  water,  separating  the  prints  in  each  wash  by 
hand.  Fix  for  20  minutes  in  a  hypo  bath  30  grains  strong, 
hydrometer  test,  which  is  equivalent  to  three  ounces  of  hypo 
crystals  to  32  ounces  of  water.  After  prints  are  fixed  wash 
in  10  changes  of  water,  separating  them  constantly  for  five 
minutes  in  each  water.  After  washing  they  are  ready  for 
mounting. 

493.  Purple  Tones. — After  printing  place  prints,  one  at 
a  time,  face  down,  in  a  tray  containing  16  ounces  of  water, 
to  which  has  been  added  }i  ounce  of  common  salt.  When 
the  prints  are  all  in,  turn  over  the  entire  batch,  bringing 

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260  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

prints  facing  bottom  to  the  top.  In  this  solution  the  prints 
should  be  kept  constantly  in  motion  and  thoroughly  sepa- 
rated. Allow  them  to  remain  until  a  purple  tint  appears. 
When  the  desired  tone  is  reached,  transfer  to  a  tray  of 
clear  water,  where  they  should  be  left  until  the  entire  batch 
is  fully  toned;  then  transfer  to  another  tray  of  clear  water 
containing  just  enough  carbonate  of  soda  to  make  it  soft. 
Handle  the  prints  over  in  this  water  for  five  minutes ;  then 
remove  to  hypo  bath  and  fix.  Finally  wash  according  to  the 
directions  given  above. 

494.  Caution. — A  strong,  harsh,  or  contrasty  negative 
will  not  produce  the  best  results  on  Gold  Paper.  Negatives 
should  be  fully  timed,  but  retain  snap  and  brilliancy. 

495.  Tones  on  Gold  Paper  are  governed  to  a  great  ex- 
tent by  depth  of  printing. 

496.  Cleanliness  is  vitally  important  in  the  manipula- 
tion of  prints.    See  that  trays  are  kept  perfectly  clean. 

497.  To  clean  a  tray,  throw  in  a  handful  of  salt,  adding 
just  enough  water  to  moisten  it;  then  scour  very  carefully 
and  rinse  thoroughly. 

498.  Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards. — This  product  is  the 
same  as  used  for  the  Aristo  Gold  Paper,  except  that  the 
stock  is  of  heavy  grade,  coated  with  Aristo  Gold  emulsion. 
Beautiful  Carbon  Sepia,  or  rich  purple  tones  can  be  obtained 
mthout  a  toning  bath. 

Directions. 

499.  Printing. — Print  until  all  detail  is  out,  or  about 
two  shades  deeper  than  the  finished  print. 

500.  Washing. — Wash  in  six  changes  of  water,  sepa- 
rating the  cards  thoroughly  in  each  immersion. 


Aristo  Gold  Paper.  261 

501.  H3rpo  Bath. — Fix  for  20  minutes  in  hypo  bath, 
30  hydrometer  test  (or  three  ounces  of  hypo  crystals  to 
32  ounces  water). 

502.  Wash  one  hour  in  running  water,  or  16  changes 
by  hand,  separating  the  cards  thoroughly  in  each  water. 
Dry  between  photographic  blotters. 

503.  Purple  Tories. — For  purple  tones  treat  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  the  Aristo  Gold  Paper. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

Aristo  Carbon  Sepia. 

A  self-toning  collodion  emulsion,  coated  on  Post  Card 
stock.  Requires  no  toning  bath.  Produces  rich  carbon  sepia 
tones. 

Directions. 

504.  Printing. — Print  until  the  high-lights  are  well 
tinted. 

505.  Washing. — Wash  in  six  changes  of  water,  of 
about  70°  temperature,  separating  the  prints  thoroughly  in 
each  water. 

506.  Hypo  Bath. — Fix  twenty  minutes,  or  until  the 
shadows  are  well  cleared  up,  in  hypo  bath,  30  degrees 
hydrometer  test,  or  in  three  ounces  of  hypo  crystals  to  32 
ounces  of  water.  Handle  the  prints  constantly  in  this  bath 
and  keep  them  well  separated. 

507.  Place  the  prints  from  the  hypo  bath  into  a  salt 
bath  of  four  ounces  of  common  salt  to  a  gallon  of  water. 
Keep  them  well  separated  in  this  bath  for  10  minutes.  Then 
wash  one  hour  in  running  water,  or  in  16  changes  by  hand, 
separating  the  prints  thoroughly  in  each  water.  Dry  be- 
tween clean  photographic  blotters. 

508.  For  PURPLE  tones  treat  the  same  as  in  directions 
for  Gold  Paper. 

509.  To  Flatten  Prints. — Take  a  piece  of  two  or  three 
inch  gas  pipe,  or  a  paste  board  mailing  tube,  two  feet  long, 

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264  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

and  cover  with  clean  paper,  pasted  to  the  tube.  Cut  a  strip 
of  heavy,  strong  paper  several  yards  long  and  two  feet 
wide.  Attach  one  end  of  the  paper  to  the  tube  with  paste ; 
then  place  the  prints  face  down  on  the  paper  and  proceed 
to  roll  up  the  paper  until  all  the  prints  are  enclosed  in  the 
roll.  Let  them  remain  in  the  roll  for  an  hour.  Should  the 
prints  curl  too  much  reverse  them  in  the  roll  for  five  to  ten 
minutes. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper. 

510.  As  its  name  implies,  this  paper  requires  no  toning 
or  developing  solutions,  and  can  be  worked  with  an  ease 
and  certainty  which  cannot  fail  to  delight  users  of  gloss 
paper. 

511.  Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper  must  be  printed  in  day- 
light. The  printing  should  only  proceed  to  a  point  slightly 
in  excess  of  the  depth  required  in  a  finished  print,  thus  ren- 
dering it  a  quick  printer  in  addition  to  its  self-toning  advan- 
tages. 

512.  It  has  great  latitude  in  printing  and  secures  full 
values  from  negatives  ranging  from  soft  to  medium  inten- 
sity. It  will  be  observed  that  the  amount  of  salt  in  the  water 
will  govern  to  an  extent  the  depth  of  tone. 

513.  Printing. — Print  a  very  little  darker  than  the  re- 
sults desired  in  the  finished  print. 

514.  Salt  Bath. — After  printing  place  the  prints,  one 

at  a  time,  face  down,  in  a  bath  composed  of : 

Water    64  ounces 

Table   Salt   i  ounce 

515.  Employ  at  least  one  quart  of  this  bath  for  two 
dozen  cabinet  prints.  Allow  the  prints  to  remain  in  the 
salt  bath  about  five  minutes,  keeping  them  face  down.  See 
that  they  are  well  separated  by  handling  them  over  four  or 
five  times,  flattening  them  a  little  each  time  by  pressing 

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266  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

to  the  bottom  of  the  tray.    This  will,  to  a  certain  extent, 
prevent  curling. 

516.  Use  trays  large  enough  to  maintain  the  bath  at 
a  depth  of  never  more  than  one-half  inch.  Keep  the  prints 
as  flat  as  possible,  care  being  taken  that  they  are  frequently 
separated  to  give  the  salt  free  action  over  their  entire  sur- 
face. The  temperature  of  the  bath  should  be  about  75°. 
Never  should  it  be  used  cold. 

517.  As  prints  are  toned,  transfer  them  to  a  tray  of 
clear  water.  When  toning  has  been  completed,  put  them 
through  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  to  prevent  bleach- 
ing, and  also  to  neutralize  the  prints.  For  this  solution  use 
one-half  dram  carbonate  of  soda  to  64  ounces  of  water, 
handling  the  prints  over  five  minutes  in  the  carbonate  of 
soda,  after  which  transfer  them  directly  to  the  fixing  bath. 

518.  Hypo  Bath. — Place  the  prints  directly  from  pre- 
vious bath  into  the  following  fixing  bath :  Hyposulphite  of 
soda,  30  hydrometer  test,  or  one  ounce  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda  crystals  to  each  ten  ounces  of  water.  Do  not  use  less 
than  one  quart  of  this  bath  for  a  small  number  of  prints. 
Allow  the  prints  to  remain  in  the  hypo  bath  fifteen  minutes, 
keeping  them  face  down  and  well  separated  by  handling. 

519.  From  the  hypo  bath  throw  the  prints  into  the 
salt  wash  (four  ounces  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water),  han- 
dle them  over  in  this  bath  for  five  minutes;  then  wash  in 
twelve  changes  of  water,  allowing  five  minutes  in  each. 

520.  Note  (a). — Trays  for  Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper 
should  be  thoroughly  scoured  with  salt  and  rinsed  well  be- 
fore using.    Washing  trays  with  alkali  retards  the  toning. 


Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper.  267 

521.  Note  (&). — Only  pure  water,  testing  neutral  with 
litmus  paper,  should  be  used  for  making  a  salt  bath  for 
self-toning  paper.  Water  containing  alkali  will  not  give  the 
best  results.  Distilled  or  ice  water  may  be  used  with  ex- 
cellent results. 

522.  Note  (c). — Be  careful  to  use  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  salt  bath  for  the  number  of  prints.  Prints  should  be  kept 
in  the  salt  bath  only  until  the  desired  tone  is  reached,  wheth- 
er it  be  two  or  ten  minutes.  Remember,  the  salt  solution 
is  nominally  the  toning  bath,  and  prints  should  be  handled 
in  this  the  same  as  in  the  other  toning  baths.  One  quart 
of  salt  water  is  sufficient  for  two  dozen  4x5  prints  or  their 
equivalent. 

523.  Note  (d). — Different  amounts  of  salt  give  various 
tones  on  this  paper.  For  older  paper  use  more  salt ;  one  and 
one-half  to  two  ounces  of  salt  to  64  ounces  of  water. 

524.  Note  (e). — After  prints  come  from  carbonate  of 
soda  bath  they  can  be  washed  in  one  clear  water  and  then 
flattened  for  five  minutes,  when  they  will  lie  flat  in  the  hypo 
bath  and  not  curl.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  prints 
flat  during  toning  and  fixing. 

525.  Note  (/). — Should  prints  show  sulphurization  in 
the  hypo  bath,  a  few  drops  of  stronger  water  of  ammonia 
added  to  the  bath  will  stop  this  trouble.  Too  much  will 
give  muddy  prints. 

526.  Note  (g). — If  prints  show  blisters  after  hypo  bath, 
they  should  be  put  in  a  salt  water  bath  for  from  five  to  ten 
minutes ;  salt,  four  ounces ;  water,  one  gallon. 

527.  Note  (h). — ^Washing  by  hand  after  hypo  bath  in 
eight  to  ten  changes  of  water  will  prevent  streaks,  or  lines. 


268  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

528.  Note  (i). — Yellow  stains  are  caused  by  too  weak 
a  salt  bath,  an  acid  fixing  bath,  or  allowing  prints  to  adhere 
to  one  another  when  first  placed  in  the  hypo  bath.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  to  separate  prints  when  they  first  go 
into  the  hypo  bath,  or  yellow  stains  may  appear,  which  no 
after  fixing  will  remove. 

529.  Note  (/). — In  handling  Self-Toning  paper,  should 
trouble  come  from  chipping  or  cracking  of  the  collodion  film, 
it  is  caused  by  prints  being  allowed  to  curl  during  the  man- 
ipulation. To  overcome  this  trouble  keep  prints  flat  in  the 
salt  bath,  care  being  taken  that  they  are  frequently  separ- 
ated so  that  the  salt  will  have  free  action  on  their  surface. 
After  salt  bath,  drain  them  face  down  on  the  bottom  of  the 
tray  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  before  putting  into  the  hypo 
bath.  This  sets  the  prints  in  a  flattened  position.  By  han- 
dling them  face  up  through  fixing  bath  and  final  wash 
water,  little  trouble  is  experienced  on  account  of  tendency 
to  curl. 

530.  All  self-toning  papers  have  the  necessary  toning 
ingredients  in  the  emulsion.  When  the  prints  are  placed 
in  the  water  the  emulsion  becoming  wet,  the  ingredients 
grow  solvent,  liberating  from  the  paper,  and  when  coming 
in  contact  with  water  form  a  toning  bath.  The  action  of 
the  toning  bath  is  similar  to  any  other  toning  bath.  The 
warmth  of  tone  is  regulated  by  the  depth  of  printing,  and 
the  amount  of  washing  previous  to  fixing.  The  purple  tones 
are  controlled  by  the  strength  of  the  salt  bath. 

531.  Practice  Work. — While  this  process  is  extremely 
simple,  yet  the  very  best  results  are  only  obtained  by  prac- 
tice and  experimenting.  The  richest  tones  and  the  brightest 
prints  are  obtained  by  accurate  printing.     The  tone  and 


Aristo  Self -Toning  Paper.  269 

color  of  the  print  are  governed  by  the  strength  of  the  salt 
bath.  You  should  print  a  number  of  sheets  of  paper,  carry- 
ing them  to  different  depths,  and  observe  the  appearance 
of  each  print  during  the  various  manipulations.  All  neces- 
sary data  should  be  noted  on  a  few  of  the  prints  of  different 
qualities,  and  these  sheets  should  be  filed  in  your  proof 
file  for  future  reference. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
The  Kallitype  Process. 

532.  Introduction. — Of  the  various  simpler  processes 
which  admit  of  practically  any  kind  of  paper  being  pre- 
pared and  sensitized  by  the  individual  worker,  the  process 
known  as  kallitype  embodies  a  method  of  printing  which, 
although  known  and  used  for  many  years,  deserves  a  much 
greater  list  of  users.  The  three  strongest  points  in  its 
favor  are:  First,  the  extremely  small  expense  connected 
with  the  process ;  second,  the  close  imitation  which  the  final 
print  bears  to  the  more  expensive  platinum  process;  and 
third,  the  simplicity  of  sensitizing,  printing,  developing  and 
fixing. 

533.  The  rapidly  increasing  scarcity  of  metallic  plati- 
num makes  it  necessary  for  the  amateur  worker  to  obtain 
something' to  take  the  place  of  platinum  paper.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  look  further  than  the  kallitype  for  results  quite 
as  good  as  will  be  found  in  platinum.  The  permanency  of 
the  kallitype  is  just  as  good  as  any  other  silver  process. 
The  richness  of  deposit  in  the  metallic  particles  usually 
associated  with  the  platinum  image  can  equally  be  claimed 
for  the  silver  image  of  the  kallitype,  the  basis  of  both  being 
ferro-oxalate.  In  fact,  kallitype  at  its  best  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  platinum. 

534.  In  the  first  experimental  stages  of  this  process 
it  was  customary  to  coat  the  paper  with  a  solution  of  ferric- 
oxalate  (an  iron  salt)  and  develop  the  image  which  was 

(271) 


272  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

secured  by  printing  through  a  negative  in  strong  daylight, 
in  a  bath  of  silver  nitrate.  This  method  was  soon  discarded 
for  another,  in  which  the  iron  and  silver  were  combined  in 
the  sensitizer  and  the  faint  image  which  was  secured  in 
printing  brought  to  full  strength  in  a  solution  of  rochelle 
salts,  borax,  or  a  combination  of  the  two.  In  fact,  this  is 
one  of  the  simplest  methods  of  procedure,  and  we  give  here 
the  process  in  its  simplest  form. 

535.  Theory  of  Process. — Upon  exposure  to  light  the 
ferric-oxalate  is  reduced  to  a  ferrous  salt,  which  when  dis- 
solved by  a  suitable  solution  has  the  power  of  reducing 
silver  nitrate  to  a  metallic  silver,  and  this  reduction  takes 
place  in  that  degree  in  which  the  light  has  altered  the  ferric 
salt. 

536.  A  Satisfactory  Formula. 

Ferric-oxalate    75  grains 

Silver  Nitrate  30  grains 

Distilled  Water i  ounce 

This  bath  may  be  prepared  in  any  quantity,  but  in  the  same 
proportions. 

537.  The  ferric-oxalate  should  be  dissolved  in  the 
water  first  and  care  must  be  exercised  at  this  stage.  It  re- 
quires warm  water  to  dissolve  it,  but  this  must  not  be  too 
hot,  or  it  may  spoil  the  oxalate.  After  it  is  dissolved,  the 
liquid  should  be  cooled  and  filtered  and  the  silver  nitrate 
added.    The  solution  should  then  be  quite  clear. 

538.  The  Paper. — A  fairly  good  quality  of  paper  should 
be  used  for  the  process — good  writing  or  drawing  paper 
will  generally  be  found  suitable,  although  most  any  paper 
may  be  used.  Some  papers  require  to  be  sized  first,  for 
which  purpose  arrowroot  should  be  used.  A  peculiar  feature 
about  the  process  is  that  the  paper  employed  has  a  consid- 


The  Kallitype  Process.  273 

erable  influence  upon  the  color  of  the  final  print,  some 
papers  giving  a  much  warmer  color  than  others  with  the 
same  developer.  The  nearer  chemically  pure,  however,  the 
paper,  the  greater  will  be  the  success  in  securing  rich  black 
images.  Where  the  cheaper  qualities  of  paper  are  used  it 
will  be  difficult  to  secure  excellent  blacks;  therefore,  it  is 
advisable  when  using  cheaper  grades  of  paper  to  develop 
for  the  warmer  colors. 

539.  Sizing  the  Paper. — As  previously  stated,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  size  the  paper;  but  if  the  best  of  results  are 
to  be  secured  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  coat  the  paper 
with  a  solution  prepared  by  grinding  in  a  mortar  10  grains 
of  arrowroot  in  about  %  ounce  of  cold  water,  and  then 
adding  5  ounces  of  hot  water  and  bringing  to  a  boil,  when 
the  milkiness  will  disappear. 

540.  In  sizing  the  paper  you  can  either  float  it  upon 
the  solution,  being  sure  that  all  air-bells  are  expelled,  or, 
the  sizing  may  be  brushed  into  the  surface  of  the  paper 
with  a  camel's-hair  brush. 

541.  Sensitizing  the  Paper. — Pin  the  paper  to  be  sen- 
sitized on  a  table  or  board  and  apply  the  solution  with  a 
camel's-hair  brush  or  a  tuft  of  cotton  (the  brush  is  to  be 
preferred).  It  is  impossible  to  state  the  exact  quantity  of 
solution  to  use,  as  the  rough  or  porous  papers  require  more 
liquid  than  those  which  are  well  sized  or  of  a  smooth  sur- 
face. The  paper  may  be  coated  by  gaslight,  or  lamp-light, 
without  fear  of  fogging  it.  It  is  about  as  sensitive  to  light 
as  platinum  paper  and,  therefore,  should  not  be  unduly  ex- 
posed to  daylight. 

542.  It  should  be  dried  thoroughly  in  the  dark-room, 
and  unless  it  is  to  be  used  at  once,  stored  in  a  tin  tube  con- 


274  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

taining  calcium  after  drying.  As  the  coating  is  very  simple 
it  is  not  necessary  to  sensitize  large  quantities  of  paper  at 
once ;  furthermore  for  black  tones  the  use  of  freshly-coated 
paper  is  essential.    Sepia  tones  are  best  secured  on  old  paper. 

543.  Printing. — The  greatest  amount  of  skill  required 
in  this  process  comes  in  the  printing,  much  depending  upon 
its  being  done  correctly.  The  image  is  only  partly  printed 
out,  resembling  platinum  paper  in  this  respect,  in  that  the 
image  is  a  grayish  blue  upon  a  lemon-colored  ground.  No 
great  difficulty  will  be  experienced,  however,  if  you  bear  in 
mind  that  those  portions  of  the  iron  salts  which  are  affected 
by  the  light  are  the  parts  that  will  come  out  strong  when 
the  developer  is  applied.  Wherever  it  is  desired  to  have  the 
picture  tinted  there  must,  in  that  same  degree,  be  darkening 
of  the  iron  salts.  Damp  paper  will  not  give  good  black  tones 
and,  therefore,  one  should  use  the  same  precautions  exer- 
cised when  using  platinum  paper.  After  a  few  experiments 
the  required  depth  of  printing  will  be  easily  ascertained. 

544.  Development. — It  is  necessary  that  the  print  be 
developed  soon  after  printing,  as  there  seems  to  be  a  con- 
tinuous printing  action.  If  the  paper  were  kept  for  a  num- 
ber of  hours  before  being  developed  it  would  flash  up  in  the 
developer  and  show  all  the  appearances  of  over-printing. 

545.  Developing  Solutions. — 

I— For  Cold  Tones. 

Hot  Water 20  ounces 

Borax   7  drams 

Rochelle   Salts    i  ounce 

Hot  water  must  be  used  to  dissolve  the  borax.  After 
the  borax  is  thoroughly  dissolved,  the  solution  should  be 
cooled  and  the  rochelle  salts  added. 


The  Kalliiype  Process.  275 

II — For  Warm  Tones. 

Water 20  ounces 

Rochelle  Salts  i  ounce 

III — Restrainer. 

Water   5  ounces 

Potassium  Bichromate    , 25  grains 

546.  The  restrainer  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
process — the  more  used  the  greater  will  be  the  contrast, 
while  the  less  employed  the  flatter  will  be  the  results. 
Strong  prints  may  be  secured  from  weak  negatives,  and  vice 
versa.  For  an  average  negative  use  }4  dram  of  No.  3  in 
each  4  ounces  of  developer. 

547.  A  warm  black  tone  will  be  obtained  on  some 
papers  by  the  use  of  No.  1,  while  on  others  it  will  give  a 
fine  dark  sepia. 

548.  A  warm  brown  tone  results  from  use  of  No.  2 
solution,  and  intermediate  tones  are  secured  by  mixing  so- 
lutions 1  and  2  in  the  proportion  desired. 

549.  Developing. — The  prints  may  be  developed  by 
immersing  them  in  the  developing  solution,  but  it  is  pre- 
ferable to  float  them  on  the  solution,  for  when  the  paper  is 
quite  thick  and  porous  air-bells  will  give  considerable 
trouble  when  the  whole  print  is  immersed.  Development 
takes  place  rapidly,  and  when  sufficient  strength  has  been 
obtained  the  prints  should  be  placed  directly,  without 
washing,  into  the  clearing  solution. 

550.  Clearing  Solution. — ^No.  2  (developer)  4  ounces; 
No.  3  (restrainer)  2  to  3  drams.  When  the  print  has  been 
placed  directly  from  the  developer  into  the  clearing  solu- 
tion, the  dish  containing  the  clearing  bath  must  be  rocked 
for  a  moment  or  two,  when  the  prints  may  be  left  in  the 
bath  for  not  less  than  10  minutes.    If  convenient  to  do  so, 


276  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

no  harm  will  be  done  if  they  remain  in  this  bath  for  half 
an  hour.  After  clearing,  the  prints  should  be  rinsed  in  two 
changes  of  water  and  then  fixed. 

551.  Fixing  Solution. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda  i  ounce 

Strong  Ammonia   2  drams 

Water   20  ounces 

The  prints  should  be  handled  over  in  this  bath  for  a 

period  of  10  minutes,  so  as  to  remove  all  traces  of  soluble 

silver  salts  which  may  be  left  in  the  paper. 

552.  Final  Washing. — A  final  washing  of  one-half 
hour  completes  the  operation.  Drying  may  be  hastened 
by  blotting  off,  or  by  heat,  as  there  is  no  gelatin  coating 
to  stick  or  melt. 

553.  Important  Pointers. — ^The  sensitizing  solution 
should  be  kept  in  the  dark. 

Never  use  a  brush  with  a  metal  binding  for  sensitiz- 
ing. 

Prints  dry  a  trifle  darker  than  they  appear  when  wet. 

Bronzing  in  the  shadows  appears  if  printing  is  carried 
out  in  direct  sunlight.  Thin  negatives  should  always  be 
printed  in  the  shade. 

554.  Manipulating  Results  by  Means  of  the  Restrain- 
er  (No.  3). — It  will  be  found  that  the  more  restrainer  added 
to  the  developer  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  exposure 
necessary  when  printing.  By  applying  this  to  an  under- 
developed, over-exposed  negative — in  other  words,  a  very 
flat  negative — the  printing  should  be  carried  to  a  consid- 
erable depth,  and  by  using  from  two  to  four  times  the 
amount  of  restrainer  called  for  when  developing  a  print 
from  a  normal  negative,  a  sufficient  amount  of  contrast  will 


The  KallHype  Process,  111 

result.  If  judgment  is  exercised  it  will  be  found  that  this 
restrainer  places  in  your  hands  a  great  power  with  which 
to  manipulate. 

555.  This  process  is  not  generally  used  in  photo- 
graphic studios,  yet  is  employed  by  a  great  many  commer- 
cial and  landscape  photographers,  as  the  process  is  inex- 
pensive. The  principal  advantage  of  the  process  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  printing  can  be  done  on  almost  any  kind 
of  material.  The  sensitizing,  printing  and  developing  is  all 
done  on  short  order  and  some  very  pretty  effects  can  be 
produced.  You  must  familiarize  yourself  with  the  process 
to  appreciate  its  good  qualities.  Select  for  your  initial  work 
some  ordinary  drawing  paper  and  sensitize  it  first  with- 
out sizing,  making  several  experiments  in  this  way.  After 
you  have  become  quite  familiar  with  the  process,  select 
coarser  paper  requiring  sizing,  and  size  and  sensitize  ac- 
cording to  instructions,  making  several  prints  thereon. 

556.  A  good  plan  is  to  size  and  sensitize  a  number  of 
different  grades  and  weights  of  paper.  Pulpy  paper  should 
not  be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  you  are  apt  to  be  troubled 
with  air  bubbles.  However,  this  material  may  be  used  if 
carefully  sized  before  sensitizing,  to  give  the  surface  a 
good  body.  After  making  prints  on  all  the  different  sur- 
faces, you  will  have  a  pretty  fair  idea  of  the  process.  By 
noting  on  the  backs  of  your  test  prints  your  observations 
of  the  effects  of  the  different  manipulations,  making  par- 
ticular note  of  the  various  qualities  of  paper  which  pro- 
duced the  best  results,  filing  all  these  prints  in  your  proof 
file,  you  will  establish  a  record  of  valuable  information  for 
future  reference. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging. 

557.  Note. — Detailed  instruction  on  Bromide  Enlarging 
is  given  in  Volume  V.  This  elementary  instruction  is  intend- 
ed only  for  those  who  do  not  have  access  to  a  room  that 
can  be  arranged  specially  for  enlarging,  and  for  those  who 
desire  to  make  enlargements  with  little  effort,  thus  famil- 
iarizing themselves  with  the  process  before  taking  up  the 
work  seriously. 

558.  Beginners  having  small  cameras,  employing  small 
size  plates  or  films,  frequently  obtain  negatives  of  special 
artistic  merit,  the  results  from  which  would  be  very  much 
improved  if  they  were  enlarged  to  about  two  or  three 
times  their  size.  This  can  be  done  very  easily,  and  with 
very  little  expense.  The  enlarging  of  the  negative  itself 
requires  some  experience,  and,  perhaps,  a  larger  camera 
than  you  possess,  but  enlarged  prints  on  bromide  or  gas- 
light paper  may  be  made  from  even  the  smallest  Brownie 
film. 

559.  Bromide  paper  is  a  paper  sensitized  with  an 
emulsion  similar  to  that  on  the  ordinary  dry  plate  or  film, 
only  of  much  less  rapidity,  permitting  of  manipulation  by 
a  stronger  light  than  would  be  safe  for  plates.  A  clear 
understanding  of  the  process  will  be  afforded  if  the  begin- 
ner will  consider  the  sheet  of  bromide  paper  as  being 
practically  a  slow  dry  plate.     Also  bear  in  mind  that  a 

(270) 


280  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

positive  image  is  produced  by  photographing  through  the 
negative  onto  the  sheet  of  bromide  paper,  with  the,  nega- 
tive and  sheet  of  paper  some  distance  apart  instead  of  in 
contact  as  is  necessary  when  making  an  ordinary  print. 

560.  This  process  requires  some  means  of  arranging 
the  negative,  lens  and  bromide  paper,  so  that  the  light  will 
travel  through  the  negative  and,  by  means  of  the  lens,  the 
image  on  the  negative  be  reflected  upon  the  sensitized 
paper.  The  space  between  the  negative  and  sensitized 
paper  must  be  enclosed  and  made  absolutely  light-tight, 
so  that  no  light  will  reach  the  paper  except  that  which 
travels  through  the  negative  and  lens. 

561.  A  simple  contrivance  suitable  for  bromide  en- 
larging by  daylight  is  made  by  the  Eastman  Kodak  Com- 
pany, and  is  known  as  the  Brownie  Enlarging  camera.  In 
it  enlargements  can  be  made  up  to  5x7  inches  in  size.  This 
camera,  as  will  be  seen  by  Illustration  No.  60,  is  nothing 
more  than  a  collapsible  box,  made  wedge  shape,  with  an 
attachment  on  the  small  end  to  receive  the  film  or  glass 
negative,  while  the  wide  end  is  fitted  with  a  paper-holder. 
About  6  inches  from  the  small  end  are  arranged  grooves  for 
the  receiving  of  the  lens  board  and  holding  the  lens  in 
proper  position.  (See  Illustration  No.  61.)  With  the  lens 
in  place  the  cone  is  closed  with  small  flaps  on  the  outside, 
as  shown  in  Illustration  No.  60. 

562.  In  Illustration  No.  62  is  presented  the  Ingento 
Daylight  Enlarger  No.  1,  which  is  a  solid  box  made  of  hard 
wood.  Like  the  Brownie  it  requires  no  adjustment,  as  it  is 
a  fixed  focus,  requiring  only  the  placing  of  the  negative 
and  paper  in  the  camera  and  exposing  to  the  light.  The 
Ingento   Enlarger  is  fitted  with  an  achromatic  lens  and 


III.  No.  60. 

Closed. 

See   Par.  561. 


Eastman   Brownie 
Enlarging  Camera. 


Illustration  No.  61. 

Sectional  View. 

See  Par.  561. 


Illustration  No.  62. 

Ingento    Daylight    Enlarger   No.    i. 

Sec   Paragraph  562. 


Illustration  No.  63. 

Ingento  Folding  Daylight  Enlarger  No.  2. 

Sec  Paragraph  563. 


Illustration  No.  64. 

Xo.  I   Eastman  Kodak 

Enlarging  Camera. 

See  Paragraph  564. 


Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging.  283 

sliding  shutter,  and  will  make  8x10  prints  from  4x5  nega- 
tives, and  6^x8^  prints  from  3^4x4^  negatives. 

563.  A  more  compact  instrument  will  be  found  in  the 
Ingento  Folding  Daylight  Enlarger  No.  2.  The  No.  2  en- 
larger  works  on  precisely  the  same  plan  as  the  No.  1,  but  is 
so  constructed  that  it  can  be  folded  up  into  a  compact 
space  when  not  in  use.  It  is  also  more  convenient  for 
loading,  being  supplied  with  a  plate  holder  for  holding  the 
paper,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  take  the  complete  cam- 
era into  the  dark-room  (as  is  required  with  the  enlargers 
formerly  mentioned).  The  holder  can  also  accommodate 
glass  plates,  should  it  be  desired  to  make  large  positives  or 
negatives.     (See  Illustration  No.  63.) 

564.  A  more  advanced  adjustable  focus  folding  en- 
larging camera  will  be  found  in  the  No.  1  Kodak  enlarging 
camera  (See  Illustration  No.  64).  This  camera  is  fitted 
with  a  good  lens  and  diflferent  size  stops  and  shutter;  also 
has  ground-glass  for  focusing,  and  is  suitable  for  pictures 
6y^  x  8^.  The  front  of  the  camera  is  fitted  with  kits,  to 
receive  negatives  any  size  up  to  4  x  5  inches.  Another  fea- 
ture of  this  camera  is  that  by  detaching  the  front  section 
the  camera  can  be  used  as  a  portrait  camera — all  that  you 
will  require  is  an  additional  lens  for  this  purpose. 

'  565.  Making  the  Enlargement. — First  place  the  film 
or  glass  negative  in  the  negative  holder,  with  the  face  or 
dull  side  towards  the  lens,  and  attach  the  holder  securely 
to  the  narrow  end  of  the  box  or  camera.  Next,  attach  the 
paper  holder  containing  the  sensitive  paper  to  the  large  end 
of  the  camera.  With  the  Brownie  and  Ingento  No.  1 
cameras  the  entire  box  will  have  to  be  taken  into  the  dark- 
room for  loading.    With  the  Ingento  No.  2  and  the  Kodak 


284  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

No.  1  this  is  not  necessary;  all  you  require  is  to  take  the 
paper  holder  into  the  dark-room,  and  this  holder  can  be 
attached  to  the  camera  in  daylight  the  same  as  on  any 
camera.  When  you  are  ready  to  make  the  exposure  you 
draw  the  slide  just  the  same  as  you  would  from  a  plate 
holder,  and  after  the  exposure  is  made  the  slide  is  again 
inserted,  thus  protecting  the  paper  from  the  light,  when  the 
holder  may  be  taken  to  the  dark-room  and  the  exposed 
paper  developed. 

566.  Focusing. — The  Brownie  and  Ingento  enlarging 
boxes  require  no  adjusting  whatever,  as  they  are  fixed  focus 
cameras,  while  the  Kodak  No.  1  is  so  constructed  that  by 
extending  both  the  front  and  rear  bellows  to  certain  points 
indicated  by  pointers  on  the  camera  bed,  you  will  obtain 
the  largest  image  passible  to  make  with  this  camera.  When 
one  desires  to  enlarge  only  a  portion  of  a  negative,  which 
requires  more  accurate  focusing,  then  focusing  must  be 
done  on  the  ground-glass.  The  lens  should  be  used  wide 
open  when  focusing.  The  rear  section  of  the  bellows  gives 
you  the  size  of  the  image.  The  further  the  bed  is  extended 
the  greater  will  be  the  size  of  the  enlargement.  When  you 
have  the  bed  in  position  to  give  the  desired  size  enlarge- 
ment, clamp  it  fast,  and  then  focus  for  sharpness  by  sliding 
the  support  for  the  lens  board  back  and  forth  until  the 
image  on  the  ground-glass  is  as  sharp  as  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  with  the  large  stop ;  then  insert  a  small  stop,  which 
gives  you  good  sharpness  throughout,  and  close  the  shutter 
when  you  are  ready  for  the  exposure. 

567.  Placing  the  Camera  for  the  Exposure. — In  mak- 
ing the  exposure  it  is  important  that  the  negative  be  evenly 
illuminated,  and  that  it  receive  as  strong  a  light  as  possible, 


Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging. 


285 


but  not  direct  sunlight.  Placing  the  camera  on  an  ordinary 
table,  near  a  window,  with  the  negative  end  facing  the  light, 
will  answer,  providing  the  window  is  not  obstructed  by 
buildings  or  trees.  With  the  fixed  focus  enlarging  camera, 
such  as  the  Brownie  or  Ingento  No,  1,  if  desired  the  en- 
larging camera  may  be  placed  out  doors,  set  on  end  in  a 
place  where  it  is  shielded  from  direct  sunlight,  with  the  end 
containing  the  negative  directed  towards  the  sky. 


MTiiiiiiTi'iriiiiiiiiiiiiiimiihiiiii 


Illustration  No.  65 

Illuminating  the   Negative 

See  Paragraph  No.  568 

568.  Where  the  window  is  used,  and  should  there  be 
any  obstructions  outside,  an  even  illumination  may  be  ob- 
tained by  placing  the  camera  on  a  table  beside  the  window, 
the  camera  and  window  being  parallel.  Provide  a  piece  of 
white  cardboard  about  14  x  20  inches,  and  place  it  about  a 
foot  from  the  negative,  at  an  angle  so  as  to  reflect  the  light 
from  the  window  onto  the  negative  (See  Illus.  No.  65). 


286  Lihrary  of  Practical  Photography. " 

569.  Making  the  Exposure. — ^With  the  Brownie  or 
Ingento  enlarging  camera,  they  being  always  in  focus,  all 
that  is  required,  after  loading  the  camera  with  the  bromide 
paper,  is  to  carry  it  to  the  light  with  the  negative  covered 
with  some  opaque  cloth,  excluding  all  light  until  the  cam- 
era is  placed  in  a  position  with  the  negative  end  facing  the 
light,  when  the  cover  may  be  removed  from  the  negative 
and  the  exposure  begun.  The  length  of  the  exposure  with 
the  fixed  focus  enlargfing  cameras  depends  upon  the  inten- 
sity of  the  light  and  the  density  of  the  negative  employed. 
With  a  good  light  and  a  negative  of  average  density  from 
40  to  60  seconds  may  be  sufficient. 

570.  With  the  Kodak  No.  1  Enlarging  Camera  the 
exposure  depends  upon  the  strength  of  light,  quality  of  the 
negative,  times  of  enlargement,  and  the  size  diaphragm 
used  with  the  average  strength  negative.  If  the  small 
diaphragm  is  used  from  20  to  30  seconds  is  usually  suffi- 
cient; if  the  large  diaphragm  is  used  10  seconds  will  suffice. 

571.  Testing  the  Exposure. — Until  one  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  judging  the  exposure  required  under  the  different 
conditions  it  would  be  best  to  use  a  test  strip  to  obtain  the 
proper  exposure.  Cut  a  sheet  of  paper  into  three  strips. 
One  of  these  strips  arrange  diagonally  across  the  paper 
holder,  and  expose  the  strip  exactly  the  same  as  you  would 
a  full  sheet,  and  then  develop.  The  exact  time  for  develop- 
ment of  a  correctly  exposed  bromide  enlargement  cannot  be 
given.  The  proper  exposure,  however,  may  be  determined 
by  the  appearance  of  the  image  in  developing.  The  image 
of  a  normal  exposure  will  appear  gradually,  building  up 
brilliantly  and  attaining  full  strengfth  in  about  one  minute. 

572.  Should  the  image  develop  up  slow  and  appear 
dim  and  weak  in  one  minute's  time,  you  will  know  the 


Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging.  287 

paper  is  under-exposed.  Should  it  flash  up  quickly,  but 
appear  dull  and  darken  all  over,  in  half  a  minute,  you  will 
know  it  is  over-exposed.  A  correct  exposure  will  develop 
gradually  and  grow  stronger  and  more  brilliant  as  it  de- 
velops, until  the  shadows  are  clear  and  crisp.  At  this  stage 
the  print  will  be  fully  developed.  After  a  few  trials  with 
the  strips  you  will  be  able  to  judge  quite  accurately  the 
exposure  necessary.  In  some  instances  where  the  light  is 
not  very  strong,  or  perhaps  the  negative  is  thick  and  hard, 
it  may  require  two  to  five  minutes  for  a  full  exposure.  This 
can  very  nicely  be  determined  with  the  trial  sheets.  After 
ascertaining  the  exposure  necessary  by  means  of  the  test 
strips,  then  load  the  holder  with  a  full  size  sheet  and  give 
the  same  exposure.  It  would  be  advisable  when  you  once 
learn  the  required  exposure  for  a  negative  to  note  the  time 
on  the  edge  of  the  negative  or  on  the  negative  envelope. 
This  will  save  you  making  a  second  test  when  enlarging 
from  the  same  negative  at  some  future  time. 

573.  Development. — ^After  the  exposure  has  been  made 
the  next  step  is  the  development,  which  is  accomplished  in 
practically  the  same  manner  as  the  development  of  the  plate 
or  film,  which,  of  course,  is  done  in  the  dark-room.  Provide 
a  ruby  or  orange  lamp,  and  three  suitable  trays,  preferably 
made  of  rubber  and  slightly  larger  than  the  bromide  paper 
employed.  Bromide  paper  is  not  as  sensitive  to  light  as  the 
dry  plate  or  film ;  therefore  a  stronger  light  may  be  em- 
ployed for  developing.  A  small  window  opening  in  the 
dark-room,  covered  with  two  thicknesses  of  yellow  post 
office  paper,  will  answer;  the  ruby  glass  may  be  dispensed 
with  and  an  orange  colored  glass  employed ;  or  even  a  plain 
piece  of  glass  covered  with  two  thicknesses  of  yellow  post 
office  paper  will  serve. 


288  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

574.  Developers. — For  the  beginner  we  would  recom- 
mend the  prepared  solution,  which  is  usually  put  up  in  con- 
centrated form  and  requires  only  diluting  with  water,  when 
it  is  ready  for  use.  For  those  who  prefer  making  up  their 
own  developer  we  recommend  the  formula  accompanying 
the  paper  or  the  following: 

575.  Formula. — 

Water    SO      ozs. 

Metol  %  oz. 

Hydroquinon     i       oz. 

Sulphite  of  Soda  (anhydrous) 4      ozs. 

Carbonate  of  Soda 6 J4  ozs. 

Note — Ortol  may  be  substituted  for  metol,  using  the  same 
quantity. 

Dissolve  the  chemicals  in  hot  water  and  in  the  order 
given,  and  let  stand  to  cool,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

576.  To  Develop,  take  1  oz.  of  the  above  solution  and 
add  6  ozs.  of  water  (this  is  sufficient  to  fully  cover  a  5  x  7 
print)  ;  add  to  this  developer  from  6  to  8  drops  of  a  10% 
solution  of  bromide  of  potassium. 

577.  Blue  Tones,  or  blue  black  tones,  are  obtained  by 
using  the  developer  as  above. 

578.  Olive  Green  Tones  may  be  obtained  by  increas- 
ing the  amount  of  bromide  of  potassium. 

579.  Fixing  Bath.— 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda  4  ozs. 

Water    24  ozs. 

When  all  crystals  are  thoroughly  dissolved  the  bath  is 

ready  for  use.     To  insure  permanent  results  a  fresh  bath 

should  be  prepared  for  each  day's  work. 

Blisters  will  sometimes  appear  where  water  of  different  tem- 
peratures is  used,  but  these  can  usually  be  avoided  by  using  a  little 
<:ommon  salt  in  the  first  washing  water  after  fixing.    A  positive  pre- 


Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging.  289 

ventative  will  be  found  by  using  the  following  fixing  bath  in  place 
of  the  plain  fixing  bath: 

Hypo    4  ozs. 

Water    32  ozs. 

When  dissolved,  add 

Metabisulphite  of  Potash Ji  oz. 

Alum    J^  oz. 

The  prints  should  be  thoroughly  immersed  in  this  bath,  to  insure 
proper  hardening  of  the  film. 

581.  To  Develop. — Provide  three  trays :  One  you  use 
for  developing,  another  for  fixing,  and  the  third  tray  for 
washing  the  prints.  Where  running  water  from  the  tap 
cannot  be  had  the  washing  tray  may  be  used  for  rinsing 
before  fixing.  After  exposure  immerse  the  print  in  the 
developer,  face  side  up.  The  image,  if  properly  exposed, 
should  begin  to  appear  slowly  and  should  develop  up  strong, 
clear  and  brilliant.  (See  Paragraph  No.  458.)  Keep  the 
solution  moving  over  the  print,  by  gently  rocking  the  tray. 
When  the  shadow  portions  appear  black  and  solid — not 
muddy — the  print  is  completely  developed;  then  remove 
from  the  developer  and  rinse  under  the  tap,  or  place  in  the 
tray  of  fresh  water  for  a  few  moments,  turning  the  print 
over  several  times,  after  which  immerse  in  the  fixing  bath. 
The  prints  should  remain  in  this  bath  for  fifteen  minutes, 
and  handled  over  occasionally,  by  hand,  to  insure  even  fix- 
ing and  also  to  avoid  staining.  After  fixing,  the  prints 
should  be  washed  for  an  hour  in  running  water,  or  they 
may  be  washed  in  a  tray  by  handling  over  several  times  in 
at  least  ten  changes  of  fresh  water. 

582.  Drying. — After  the  prints  are  carefully  washed 
they  may  be  surface  dried  by  placing  between  clean  white 
blotters,  then  laid  out  on  dry  blotters,  face  side  up,  until 
they  become  surface  dry,  when  they  may  be  placed  between 
cardboard  and  put  under  weight  until  bone  dry. 


290  Library  of  Practical  Photography 

583.  Trimming  and  Mounting. — See  following  chapter. 

584.  Papers  to  Use. — For  the  beginner  we  would  ad- 
vise the  use  of  the  matt  surface  bromide  paper,  as  this  sur- 
face of  paper  is  suited  to  a  large  variety  of  negatives.  For 
further  information  regarding  papers  and  advanced  bromide 
enlarging,  sepia  tones,  etc.,  see  Volume  V. 

585.  Notes. — Bromide  paper  must  be  placed  in  the 
paper  holder  in  the  dark-room,  by  the  light  of  a  suitable 
lamp.  Be  sure  that  the  paper  holder  and  negative  holder 
are  securely  attached  to  the  camera.  Should  any  other 
light  than  that  passing  through  the  negative  and  lens  reach 
the  bromide  paper  it  would  cause  a  fog  over  the  print. 

Always  exercise  care  in  loading  the  holder,  and  before 
opening  the  dark-room  door,  to  see  that  all  your  unexposed 
bromide  paper  is  returned  to  its  envelope,  where  it  is  fully 
protected  from  the  light. 

Bromide  paper  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  away 
from  strong  light. 

586.  Judging  the  Face  Side  of  Paper. — The  face  of 
bromide  paper  can  always  be  distinguished  by  its  curling  in ; 
the  convex  side  is  always  the  back. 

587.  Fog. — Fog  may  be  caused  by  exposing  the  paper 
to  unsafe  light,  or  by  using  too  little  bromide  of  potassium. 
The  amount  given  in  formula  is  the  minimum  that  should 
be  used;  owing  to  varied  conditions  an  increased  amount 
may  at  times  be  found  necessary. 

588.  Mealy,  flat  prints  are  caused  by  over-exposure 
and  short  development. 

589.  Weak  prints  are  caused  by  under-exposure. 

590.  Gray  prints  are  caused  by  under-exposure  and 
forced  development. 


Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging.  291 

591.  Greenish  tones  are  caused  by  over-exposure  and 
too  much  bromide. 

592.  Judging  When  Prints  Are  Fixed. — The  prints  are 
fixed  when  looking  through  them  to  the  light  they  appear 
even  and  transparent.  Unfixed  portions  will  be  a  greenish 
yellow. 

593.  Complete  instruction  for  bromide  enlarging  and 
advanced  methods  will  be  foimd  in  Volume  V. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
Trimming  and  Mounting. 

594.  It  is  not  enough  to  be  able  to  make  good  nega- 
tives and  good  prints.  The  print  should  have  a  proper 
setting,  to  heighten  its  effect.  The  undesirable  portions 
should  be  trimmed  away,  and  a  tasteful  mount  will  greatly 
improve  the  finished  photograph.  Thousands  of  good  pho- 
tographic prints  have  been  ruined  by  an  unsuitable  choice 
of  mount,  while  indifferent  second  rate  pictures  have  been 
greatly  improved  by  discriminate  and  artistic  taste  in 
mounting.  Indeed,  taken  together  they  have  become  quite 
an  art  in  themselves.  The  best  photographers,  like  the  best 
artists,  treat  the  mount  like  the  frame  of  a  picture,  worthy 
of  the  most  careful  thought  and  study. 

595.  Where  to  Trim. — As  the  purpose  of  all  trimming 
is  to  improve  the  print  by  emphasizing  and  balancing  the 
principal  point  of  interest,  it  is  evident  that  trimming  is 
largely  a  matter  of  composition.  If  the  picture  is  properly 
composed  the  essential  parts  of  the  view  will  reasonably  fill 
the  print.  It  is  only  necessary  then  to  have  due  regard  for 
the  decorative  effect  of  the  principal  lines  and  masses  in  the 
pictures.  But  sometimes  an  isolated  bit  of  dark  or  light 
comes  on  the  edge.  Useless  and  undesirable  details  obscure 
the  print  and  should  be  trimmed  off.  It  is  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  view  that  makes  the  picture.  Make  it  a  rule  to 
trim  mercilessly — i.  e.,  trim  down  until  the  best  proportions 
have  been  obtained.     A  square  inch  of  interest  is  better 

293 


294  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

than  a  square  yard  of  monotony.  A  part  is  often  of  more 
value  than  the  whole.  Do  not  hesitate  to  sacrifice  the  half 
or  more  of  the  print,  if  it  benefits  or  accentuates  what 
remains. 

596.  In  seascapes,  take  care  to  have  the  horizons  level. 
In  buildings  trim  so  that  the  vertical  lines  are  perfectly 
square.  One  expects  them  to  be  perpendicular,  unless  the 
original  was  out  of  plumb,  as  sometimes  happens  in  old 
buildings  or  ruins.  When  the  lines  are  not  straight, 
through  neglect  to  use  the  rising  front  in  the  camera,  or  the 
swing-back,  tilt  the  print  a  little  when  cutting  to  compen- 
sate for  this.  Two  pieces  of  cardboard  shaped  like  a  car- 
penter's square,  laid  on  the  print  and  moved  about  so  as  to 
get  the  most  pleasing  picture,  will  be  a  great  help  in  judg- 
ing how  the  print  should  be  trimmed.  In  all  this  work  be 
sure  that  the  edges  are  parallel  and  the  corners  are  square, 
regardless  of  the  original  size  of  the  plate. 

597.  How  to  Trim. — It  goes  without  saying  that  the 
print  should  be  thoroughly  dried  before  trimming,  other- 
wise there  is  a  certainty  either  of  tearing  it  or  of  leaving  the 
edges  ragged.  The  knife  may  be  a  common  pocket  knife, 
but  it  should  be  of  good  quality  steel,  with  a  slightly 
rounded  point;  and  last,  but  not  least,  it  must  be  kept 
sharp.  Some  trim  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  but  this  method 
does  not  insure  accuracy  or  straight  edges.  We  therefore 
recommend  the  regulation  trimming  board,  with  a  measur- 
ing scale  and  cutting  blade  that  does  this  work  with  neat- 
ness and  despatch.  They  can  be  bought  at  the  price  almost 
of  a  pair  of  scissors  or  of  a  knife. 

598.  Mounting  Prints. — It  is  only  when  prints  have 
been  properly  trimmed,  that  we  are  ready  to  consider 
mounting  them.     There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  mounts, 


Trimming  and  Mounting. 


295 


viz. :  commercial  mounts  that  can  be  obtained  ready  made 
from  the  stock  dealers,  and  artistic  mounts,  home  made 
combinations  of  tinted  mounting  papers  or  boards.  Both 
kinds  are  procurable  in  great  variety,  to  suit  all  tastes  from 
severe  plainness  and  simplicity  to  the  most  artistic  creations. 
However,  there  are  certain  general  principles  that  the  be- 
ginner should  always  bear  in  mind  to  help  him  in  his  choice 
of  a  mount. 


/9 

N 

\ 
N 
N 

V 

Illustration  No.  66 

Prints  of  One  Size  on  Mounts  of  Varying  Sizes 

See  Paragraph  No.  599 

599.  Size  of  Mount. — First,  the  size  of  the  mount 
should  bear  a  certain  relative  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
print.  A  small  print  will  carry  a  larger  margin,  in  propor- 
tion, than  a  large  print  will.  Therefore,  a  small  print  should 
have  a  relatively  larger  mount,  although  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  a  small  picture  on  a  large  mount  will  tend  to 


296  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

dwarf  the  apparent  size  of  the  print.  The  proportion  of  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  mount  affects  the  apparent  length 
and  breadth  of  the  print.  Thus  in  Illustration  66,  A,  B,  C, 
D,  we  have  a  series  of  four  diagrams  where  the  print  re- 
mains the  same  size,  but  the  mounts  vary.  The  best  ar- 
rangement here  is  in  D.  The  reader  will  note  that  the 
space  above  the  picture  is  the  same  in  all  four  cases.  By 
increasing  the  end  spaces  in  A  the  picture  looks  smaller,  but 
longer  than  in  B,  where  the  mount  is  very  nearly  square. 
In  C  the  mount  and  picture  are  in  the  same  proportion,  but 
this  is  too  mathematical  to  be  artistically  correct,  since  it 
gives  us  four  corner  points  in  a  common  diagonal.  A  little 
variety  is  better.  The  print  will  always  look  better  if 
mounted  somewhat  above  the  middle  of  the  mount. 

600.  Texture  of  Mount. — A  rough  print  on  a  smooth 
mount  or  a  smooth  print  on  a  rough  mount  are  both  accen- 
tuated by  contrast  with  the  texture  of  the  surface  on  the 
mount.  Great  differences,  then,  of  surface  texture  are  sel- 
dom desirable,  as  they  attract  attention  and  divide  the  in- 
terest with  the  picture. 

601.  Tone  and  Color. — Neutral  tones  are  best  where 
the  purpose  is  to  emphasize  the  high-lights  and  deep  sha- 
dows of  a  picture.  But  the  color  of  the  mount  should  never 
so  closely  approximate  the  print  that  it  blends  with  it  in 
any  way.  The  color  of  the  mount  should  harmonize  with 
the  predominant  tone  in  the  picture,  and  this  it  can  do  in 
two  ways:  First,  by  harmony  of  analogy  (i.  e.,  a  tone  of 
the  same  or  similar  color)  ;  second,  by  harmony  of  con- 
trast, where  the  complimentary  color  prevails.  A  suitable 
mount  for  any  print,  then,  should  either  harmonize  with  its 
predominant  tone  or  contrast  with  it  along  the  lines  of  com- 
plement.   The  first  method  is  the  easier  for  the  beginner  to 


<^~ 


r 


A  WINTER  STREAM 
Study  No.  io — See  Page  371 


By  R.  E.  Weeks 


Trimming  and  Mounting.  299 

follow,  because  in  selecting  the  mount  he  simply  continues 
the  predominating  tone  of  the  print.  In  this  way  one  avoids 
such  grave  errors  as  mounting  prints  with  purple  tones  on 
gray  mounts,  or  black  and  white  prints  on  brown  and  green 
mounts.  There  are  no  color  contrasts  to  black  and  white; 
each  contrasts  with  the  other,  and  between  these  are  many 
grays.  The  beginner,  if  he  is  wise,  will  mount  his  browns 
and  sepias  on  mounts  that  harmonize  with  these  colors — at 
least  until  he  acquires  a  good  knowledge  of  complimentary 
colors.  Hence  dark  mounts  in  general  should  be  used  for 
deep  toned  prints  and  light  mounts  for  delicate  tones — but 
absolutely  white  or  black  mounts  should  rarely  be  used. 
Indeed  all  bright  colored  mounts  are  to  be  avoided,  not 
only  because  they  tend  to  attract  attention  away  from  the 
picture,  but  because  of  the  complimentary  color  suggested. 
Extremes  of  color  and  even  texture  are  not  suitable  mounts 
for  photographs,  as  a  rule.  Quiet  or  sombre  colors  of 
gray-green  or  brown,  also  neutral  tints  are  generally  most 
effective.  Grays  and  browns  are  always  useful,  and  dull 
prints  may  often  be  brightened  up  by  the  addition  of  a 
narrow  white  edge  around  the  print. 

602.  Double  Mounting. — In  double  mounting  it  is 
often  best  to  use  two  or  more  shades  of  the  same  color, 
showing  as  rules  around  the  print,  rather  than  to  experi- 
ment with  another  color.  Double  mounting  requires  a  good 
eye  for  color  effects,  and  the  more  line  effects  used  the 
narrower  they  should  be.  It  is  also  important  that  the 
different  papers  of  the  mount  be  stuck  together  and  quite 
dry,  before  the  print  is  added,  otherwise  the  print  will 
cockle.  A  dab  of  paste  on  the  top  edge  of  each  sheet  will 
hold  them  together,  and  a  narrow  strip  of  paste  along  the 
top  edge  of  the  print  will  attach  it  firmly  to  the  mount. 


300  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

The  whole  thing,  print  and  double  mount,  should  be  left 
under  pressure  for  some  hours. 

603.  Pasting. — To  come  down  to  the  dry  details  of 
pasting  the  print,  use  fresh  starch  paste,  or  Higgins'  Photo 
Mounter,  an  excellent  and  ever  ready  preparation  for  ordi- 
nary mounting  of  prints.  Good  mountant  must  stick  well 
and  promptly ;  should  not  affect  the  print  either  chemically, 
mechanically,  or  by  discoloration;  must  be  easy  to  prepare 
and  easy  to  use  without  cockling  the  mount.  The  paste 
should  be  applied  with  a  flat  bristle  brush,  using  as  little  as 
necessary  but  applying  it  rapidly  and  evenly.  Before  the 
print  has  a  chance  to  expand  lay  it  on  the  mount,  cover  it 
with  blotting  paper  and  pass  the  squeegee  roller  over  it 
lightly  at  first;  then  gradually  with  more  pressure,  make 
complete  and  uniform  contact.  The  print  will  dry  nearly 
flat  if  kept  between  blotters  and  under  a  heavy  weight  for  a 
few  days. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
Supplementary  Lenses  for  Hand  Cameras. 

604.  The  lenses  which  are  supplied  with  most  small 
hand  cameras  are  limited  in  their  scope,  and  the  amateur  is 
often  desirous  of  doing  work  which  his  lens  will  not  accom- 
plish. Of  course  lenses  for  particular  purposes  can  be  pur- 
chased, but  generally  speaking,  they  are  expensive.  How- 
ever, the  amateur  can  readily  overcome  this  difficulty  and 
fulfil  his  wants  by  the  use  of  little  extra  lenses,  which  are 
commonly  called  "supplementary  lenses."  These  are,  prac- 
tically, spectacle  glasses  ground  to  give,  in  conjunction  with 
the  lens  on  the  camera,  either  wide-angle  effects,  short  focus 
effects,  long  distance  effects,  and  so  on.  Such  supplement- 
ary lenses  can  be  bought  ready  to  slip  over  the  regular  lens. 

605.  Ideal  Outfit.— -The  Ideal  Photo  Optical  Outfit 
consists  of  a  complete  set  of  ideal  supplementary  lenses,  a 
ray  filter  and  a  duplicator.  They  are  made  to  slip  over  the 
lens  just  like  a  cap,  and  are  adjustable  to  any  lens  generally 
supplied  with  a4x5or5x7  camera.  With  this  outfit  there 
is  no  limit  to  the  variety  of  effects  obtainable.  The  lenses 
are  only  supplementary,  but  they  give  the  owner  of  an  ordi- 
nary objective  lens  the  advantage  of  five  different  focal 
lengths,  which  is  equivalent  to  five  objective  lenses. 

606.  The  outfit  consists  of  one  portrait  lens,  one  en- 
larging and  copying  lens,  one  wide-angle  lens,  one  telephoto 
lens,  one  ray  filter  and  one  duplicator.    (See  Illustration  No. 

301 


302  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

67.)  It  is  not  necessary  to  purchase  this  entire  outfit,  as 
each  lens  may  be  bought  singly.  When  purchasing  any  of 
these  lenses,  the  diameter  of  your  lens  must  be  carefully 
measured  and  the  size  given,  also  the  style,  make  and  size 
of  camera. 

607.  Portrait  Lens. — This  lens  is  intended  for  making 
portraits  or  large  heads,  with  a  short  bellows  camera.  It 
will  increase  the  speed  of  your  lens  and  give  a  softness  to 
the  image  that  is  only  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  regular 
portrait  lens.  Slip  the  attachment  over  your  lens,  and  if  the 
frame  of  the  attachment  fits  too  loosely,  push  the  springs  in 
towards  the  center,  so  they  will  hold  firmly.  The  springs 
must  all  be  pushed  in  the  same  distance  from  all  sides,  so 
that  the  lens  in  the  attachment  may  be  properly  centered. 
Focus  the  camera  with  the  supplementary  portrait  lens  at- 
tached, using  the  largest  stop.  The  nearer  the  camera  is 
to  the  subject  the  larger  will  be  the  portrait.  The  expos- 
ure is  made  in  the  usual  way.  When  ordering  supplementary 
lenses,  give  make  and  size  of  camera,  and  also  measure  the 
diameter  of  your  regular  lens. 

608.  Enlarging  and  Copying  Lens. — This  lens,  when 
attached  to  the  lens  of  any  camera,  will  increase  its  power  so 
that  small  objects  or  pictures  may  be  photographed  to  their 
full  size,  or  larger  if  desired.  Draw  the  bellows  of  the  cam- 
era out  as  far  as  it  will  go.  Next  slip  the  enlarging  and 
copying  lens  over  the  front  of  your  regular  lens.  Place  the 
camera  on  a  table  about  6  inches  from  the  object  or  picture 
to  be  photographed.  Carefully  examine  the  image  on  the 
ground-glass,  and  instead  of  focusing  by  pulling  the  bel- 
lows back  and  forth,  focus  by  pushing  the  entire  camera  to 
or  from  the  object  or  picture,  until  a  sharp  image  is  obtained 
on  the  ground-glass. 


Illustration  No.  67 

Ideal  Photo  Optical  Outfit 

See  Paragraph  No.  606 


Illustration  No.  68 

Kodak  Portrait  Lens 

See  Paragraph  No.  618 


Supplementary  Lenses  for  Hand  Cameras.  305 

609.  The  above  directions  explain  the  method  for  se- 
curing the  largest  picture  possible  with  this  combination. 
If  it  is  desired  to  make  pictures  of  actual  size  or  smaller, 
adjust  the  bellows  until  the  required  size  is  seen  on  the 
ground-glass,  and  then  focus  sharply,  as  described  above. 
In  all  cases  focus  with  a  large  diaphragm  in  the  lens,  but 
before  exposing  change  it  to  a  small  one.  This  small  stop 
will  increase  the  depth  of  focus  and  cover  the  plate  sharp  to 
the  corners.  The  small  stop  will,  of  course,  make  it  neces- 
sary to  give  a  longer  exposure. 

610.  Wide-Angle  Lens. — ^Attach  this  lens  in  the  usual 
way,  by  slipping  over  your  regular  lens,  and  focus  as  you 
ordinarily  would,  always  using  the  large  stop.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  use  a  considerably  smaller  stop  when 
making  the  exposure.  This  wide-angle  lens  attachment  will 
be  found  most  useful  for  confined  situations,  more  especially 
interior  views  where  the  rooms  are  small  and  you  desire  to 
show  as  much  as  possible  of  the  room. 

611.  Telephoto  Lens. — This  attachment  is  to  be  used 
for  making  distant  pictures.  It  will  increase  the  focal  length 
of  the  regular  lens  and  magnify  the  picture  so  that  objects 
at  a  distance  can  be  photographed  larger  than  with  an  ordi- 
nary lens.  Focus  in  the  usual  manner,  after  the  lens  is 
attached.  Always  focus  with  a  large  stop,  but  use  a  consid- 
erably smaller  one  when  making  the  exposure. 

612.  Ray  Filter.— The  function  of  the  Ideal  Ray  Fil- 
ter is  to  render  the  different  colors,  as  seen  by  the  eye,  in 
their  correct  values  on  the  finished  pictures,  and  to  accom- 
plish this  a  filter  is  employed  which  absorbs  the  violet  and 
blue  rays  of  light,  which  act  most  rapidly  on  the  sensitive 
plate.  By  this  we  do  not  mean  that  green  will  appear  green 
or  yellow  appear  yellow,  but  that  the  green  will  appear  a 


305  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

darker  shade  than  the  yellow  on  the  picture.  A  light  blue 
will  ordinarily  photograph  white.  With  the  Ideal  Ray  Fil- 
ter, however,  it  will  have  a  grayish  tint  and  the  whites  will, 
of  course,  be  white.  Thus,  fleecy  white  clouds  in  a  blue  sky 
will  be  visible  in  the  negative  when  using  a  ray  filter. 
Without  the  use  of  the  filter,  however,  the  sky  would  be 
totally  white. 

613.  The  advantages  of  a  ray  filter  are  well  known, 
but  it  must  be  made  optically  and  spectroscopically  perfect 
to  be  of  any  value. 

614.  The  ray  filter  should  be  used  in  photographing 
landscapes,  flowers,  colored  pictures  and  views  with  moun- 
tains in  the  distance.  After  focusing  your  view,  slip  the  ray 
filter  over  the  front  of  the  lens  in  the  regular  way,  but  bear 
in  mind  that  the  exposure  must  be  increased  from  six  to 
eight  times  when  the  ordinary  dry  plates  are  being  used. 
With  isochromatic  plates  the  exposure  should  only  be  in- 
creased about  three  times. 

615.  Duplicator. — By  attaching  this  instrument  to  the 
lens  of  any  camera,  a  person  or  persons  can  be  photo- 
graphed in  two  positions  on  the  plate,  without  showing  any 
division  line  where  the  exposures  meet.  We  will  suppose, 
for  example,  that  it  is  desired  to  photograph  a  person  sit- 
ting at  either  side  of  a  table,  possibly  playing  a  game  of 
chess  or  checkers,  with  himself  for  an  opponent.  Place  the 
camera  so  that  the  center  of  the  table  will  be  in  the  center 
of  the  picture. 

616.  After  the  subject  is  seated  and  the  camera  prop- 
erly focused,  attach  the  Duplicator  by  slipping  it  over  the 
hood  of  the  lens,  with  the  opening  on  the  same  side  on  which 
the  subject  is  sitting.  If  the  subject  is  sitting  on  the  right 
side  of  the  camera,  you  will  notice  that  the  ground-glass  on 


Supplementary  Lenses  for  Hand  Cameras.  307 

the  opposite  side  is  in  darkness.  Use  a  small  diaphragm 
for  this  work,  about  f/16.  If  your  diaphragms  are  not  num- 
bered, use  the  second  or  third  from  the  largest  stop.  The 
right  half  of  the  ground-glass,  which  shows  the  subject, 
should  project  just  a  little  beyond  the  center  of  the  plate. 
You  are  now  ready  for  the  exposure.  Expose  about  three 
times  as  long  as  for  an  ordinary  exposure.  Next,  without 
moving  the  camera,  turn  the  duplicator  around  so  that  the 
opening  will  be  on  the  other  half  of  the  lens  and  have  the 
subject  change  over  to  the  other  side  of  the  table.  Make 
another  exposure,  giving  the  same  time  as  in  the  first 
exposure. 

617.  Close  the  shutter  after  the  first  exposure,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  to  return  the  slide  to  the  holder.  Also  see 
that  the  side  of  the  opening  in  the  Duplicator  is  perfectly 
vertical.  Exactly  the  same  exposure  must  be  given  both 
sections,  and  when  developing,  the  plate  will  develop  evenly 
all  over,  resulting  in  a  perfect  negative  showing  the  subject 
in  two  positions,  as  though  it  were  made  with  a  single 
exposure.  Care  must  be  exercised  that  neither  the  camera 
nor  the  table  is  moved  when  the  subject  is  changing  from 
one  side  to  the  other. 

618.  Kodak  Portrait  Lens.— The  Kodak  Portrait  at- 
tachment is  simply  an  extra  lens  that  slips  in  front  of  the 
regular  lens.  It  in  no  way  affects  the  operation  of  the  fixed 
focus  kodaks,  except  that  it  makes  a  sharper  picture  at  a 
distance  of  three  and  one-half  feet,  and,  of  course,  throws 
more  distant  objects  out  of  focus.    (See  Illustration  No.  68.) 

619.  These  Kodak  Portrait  attachments  may  also  be 
used  with  any  of  the  adjustable  focus  kodaks.  After  attach- 
ing the  portrait  lens  to  any  focusing  kodak,  rack  the  bel- 
lows out  until  the  pointer  on  the  focusing  scale  points  at 


308  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

fifteen  feet.  Place  your  subject  at  three  and  one-half  feet 
from  the  camera  and  a  good  bust  portrait  can  be  made. 
Only  bust  portraits  should  be  attempted  with  these  attach- 
ments. 

620.  By  changing  the  focus  it  is  possible  to  place  the 
subject  at  different  distances  from  the  camera,  thus  increas- 
ing or  diminishing  the  size  of  the  image.  As  the  Kodak 
Portrait  Lens  is  intended  for  use  with  film  cameras  which 
cannot  be  focused  on  a  ground-glass,  accompanying  each 
portrait  attachment  is  a  printed  table  telling,  in  precise  fig- 
ures, the  proper  distance  on  the  focusing  scale  required  to 
correspond  with  the  distance  the  subject  is  from  the  lens. 

621.  In  all  cases  where  portraits  or  pictures  require  a 
time  exposure  with  the  hand  camera,  the  instrument  must 
be  attached  to  a  tripod  or  rest  on  something  solid,  to  pre- 
vent jarring  of  the  camera  during  the  exposure.  For  all 
portraits  in  the  home  at  least  three  seconds'  exposure  should 
be  given. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  Work. 

622.  The  simplest  form  of  photography,  when  rightly 
understood,  is  hand  camera  work.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to 
assume  that  since  it  is  easy  to  use  a  hand  camera,  it  is 
therefore  easy  to  take  successful  photographs.  One  must 
have  a  certain  amount  of  skill  and  knowledge  to  know 
even  how  to  press  the  button  rightly,  for  there  are  certain 
fixed  laws  underlying  all  branches  of  photography  that 
must  be  observed  and  respected.  Neglect  of  these  laws 
results  in  failures.  With  no  knowledge  of  them  you  are 
like  a  boat  without  a  rudder — you  are  kept  guessing  all 
the  time.  Sometimes  you  guess  right,  but  more  often  you 
guess  wrong.  Occasionally  you  may  get  a  good  picture, 
but  only  by  accident,  as  the  chances  are  against  you. 
Therefore,  it  is  a  wise  plan  to  study  these  laws  and  be 
governed  by  them. 

623.  Best  Hand  Cameras. — First  of  all,  what  is  the 
best  type  of  hand  cameras  to  choose?  As  we  have  seen, 
some  hand  cameras  have  a  fixed  focus, — i.  e.,  all  images 
beyond  a  certain  distance  are  in  focus  with  it.  In  the  focus- 
ing camera  there  is  an  attachment  for  indicating  distances, 
a  scale  or  pointer  arranged  outside  the  camera.  The  dis- 
advantage of  the  fixed  focus  camera  is,  that  no  object  nearer 
than  the  fixed  distance  can  be  photographed,  while  the 
disadvantage  of  the  focusing  camera  lies  in  the  difficulty 

300 


3 1 0  Library  of  Practical  Photography^. 

in  judging  distances  accurately.  Both  these  difficulties  are 
overcome  by  the  use  of  the  folding  hand  camera,  fitted 
with  a  ground-glass  as  well  as  a  scale  for  focusing,  for, 
with  this  camera,  if  you  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  distance, 
after  setting  the  camera  to  the  scale,  prove  the  distance 
by  observing  the  image  on  the  ground-glass.  The  ground- 
glass  focusing  camera  can  also  be  used  for  many  purposes 
that  the  scale  focusing  camera  cannot  be  used;  therefore, 
many  who  purchase  cameras  prefer  one  that  can  be  used 
for  all  around  purposes,  and  the  combined  ground-glass 
and  scale  focusing  camera  is,  therefore,  selected. 

624.  How  to  Test  the  Focus. — The  focusing  scale  on 
a  hand  camera  is  sometimes  faulty.  To  prove  this,  mark 
off,  along  the  ground,  the  distances  from  the  camera  as 
given  on  the  focusing  scale.  Insert  the  ground-glass  in 
the  camera  and  set  the  scale  to  the  nearest  distance.  If 
the  objects  at  a  similar  distance  along  the  ground  are  not 
in  focus,  the  scale  is  not  correct.  If  the  object  is  in  focus 
the  scale  is  correct. 

625.  How  to  Test  Camera. — Plates  are  often  fogged 
because  the  camera  is  not  light-tight.  To  test  this,  close 
the  lens,  open  the  back,  and  throw  the  focusing  cloth  over 
the  head  and  camera.  Then  hold  the  camera  up  to  strong 
light  for  some  seconds  and  look  through  it;  if  any  stray 
light  is  coming  in  it  will  soon  be  apparent. 

626.  The  Lens. — The  most  important  feature  of  the 
hand  camera  is  the  lens.  The  lens  is  to  the  camera  what 
the  human  eye  is  to  the  individual.  If  the  eye  is  poor  the 
sight  is  blurred ;  so,  if  the  lens  is  poor,  or  limited  in  its 
capacity,  the  picture  will  lack  sharpness,  detail  and  paral- 
lelism of  lines.  It  is  true  that  an  ordinary  cheap  rectilinear 
lens  oftentimes  will  make  good  pictures    of    landscapes. 


Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  Worl^.  31 1 

marines,  interiors,  portraits  and  buildings,  under  favorable 
conditions,  but  when  the  conditions  are  not  favorable,  which 
is  more  often  the  case,  the  anastigmat  lens  will  be  of  great- 
er advantage.  This  lens  can  be  used  at  a  large  aperture, 
which  will  often  save  many  under-exposures  of  plates  and 
films,  and  allow  work  in  a  light  which  with  the  cheaper 
lens  would  be  impossible.  While  a  single  lens  is  to  be 
preferred  for  landscape  and  marines,  it  will  not  take  build- 
ings, as  it  does  not  render  straight  lines  correctly.  Good 
portrait  work  requires  a  special  lens.  But  to  take  up  the 
question  of  lenses  here  is  not  our  purpose,  as  it  can  only 
confuse  the  beginner.  A  complete  and  exhaustive  descrip- 
tion of  lenses  and  their  construction  will  be  found  in  Vol- 
ume VI  of  this  Library.  For  the  moment,  remember  that 
the  difference  between  a  good  and  poor  hand  camera 
oftentimes  lies  very  largely  in  the  lens.  If  you  take  up 
photography  with  a  view  to  making  good  pictures  and 
sticking  to  it  until  you  succeed,  then  buy  at  least  a  good 
rectilinear  lens  at  the  start.  You  may  be  sure  that  it  will 
only  be  a  short  time  before  you  will  become  disgusted 
with  the  cheaper  lens,  and  lay  it  aside  to  buy  a  better  one. 
627.  To  Test  the  Lens. — ^To  test  the  rectilinear  lens 
in  any  camera,  open  the  shutter,  take  out  the  plate  holders, 
and  focus  on  the  ground-glass.  Cover  your  head  with  a 
focusing  cloth.  From  the  picture  projected  on  the  ground- 
glass,  the  definition  and  covering  power  of  the  lens  may 
be  seen  at  a  glance.  With  a  five  inch  lens  at  f/8,  if  we 
focus  on  an  object  12  ft.  away,  or  set  the  scale  to  12  ft, 
everything  from  8  to  20  feet  away  will  be  sharp.  This  is 
what  is  known  as  depth  of  focus  in  the  lens.  A  good  anas- 
tigmat will  cover  sharply  at  open  aperture,  but  distant  and 
near  objects  will  not  be  defined  with  equal  clearness.    The 


3 1 2  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

ordinary  rectilinear  type  of  lenses  has  more  depth  of  focus, 
but  lacks  in  atmosphere. 

628.  Shutters. — ^Among  the  attachments  of  a  hand 
camera,  next  in  importance  to  the  lens  is  a  good  shutter. 
The  best  lens  in  the  world  will  fail  when  the  shutter  is 
unreliable  or  does  not  work  properly.  In  purchasing  a 
hand  camera  then,  make  sure  that  your  shutter  can  be 
regulated  from  one  second  to  one-hundredth  part  of  a  sec- 
ond, and  that  your  lens  is  fast  enough  to  stand  this  latter 
brief  exposure.  The  beginner  who  has  his  shutter  working 
at  one  speed  and  one  opening,  and  who  tries  to  make  pic- 
tures at  any  hour  of  the  day,  with  any  kind  of  light,  can- 
not reasonably  expect  to  have  successful  results.  There  are 
two  types  of  hand  camera  shutters,  one  which  has  metal 
discs  that  pass  across  the  lens,  and  the  other  a  flexible  blind 
on  rollers.  The  latter  is  adapted  to  give  the  greatest  ef- 
ficiency and  the  highest  speeds.  It  is  best  in  the  focal 
plane-shutter  type,  so-called  because  it  lies  almost  in  the 
focal  plane  of  the  lens,  i.  e.,  as  close  as  possible  to  the  plate. 
The  former  type  gives  slower  speeds  and  is  easier  to  man- 
age with  accuracy,  and  is,  therefore,  recommended  for  the 
beginner.     (See  Paragraphs  53-56,  Chapter  II.) 

629.  Rising  Fronts. — The  rising  front  is  a  very  im- 
portant attachment  to  the  hand  camera,  as  it  is  available 
for  both  upright  and  horizontal  views.  It  should  give  a 
movement  of  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  length  of  the  plate. 
With  this  attachment  an  excess  of  foreground  can  be  cut 
off,  and  often  the  tops  of  buildings  or  of  trees  may  be  in- 
cluded in  the  view  without  tilting  the  camera. 

630.  Levels  and  Finders. — The  level  insures  correct 
horizon  in  the  picture,  and  holds  upright  the  perpendicular 
lines  of  buildings,  if  there  are  any  in  the  view.    It  is  some- 


Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  Worl^.  313 

times  very  annoying  to  find  that  your  picture  was  spoiled 
because  your  camera  was  not  held  level  and  upright,  which 
can  always  be  effected  with  the  aid  of  the  level.  Large 
finders  are  an  advantage,  as  they  show  a  full  size  image  of 
the  view  to  be  taken,  and  enable  one  to  better  see  and  com- 
pose the  picture  up  to  the  time  of  taking  it. 

631.  Films  vs.  Plates. — The  film  and  the  plate  camera 
both  have  their  advantages  even  for  the  beginner.  It  is  a 
matter  of  simply  learning  how  to  use  the  instrument  at 
hand  and  obtain  with  it  the  very  best  results.  With  the 
film  camera  one  has  the  advantage  of  lightness  and  porta- 
bility. With  the  film  pack  or  the  single  film  one  has  almost 
the  same  advantage  of  developing  each  exposure  before  mak- 
ing others  as  he  would  have  with  the  plate,  thus  enabling 
him  to  prove  his  results  as  he  makes  his  exposures.  Of 
course  with  the  roll  film  the  manufacturers,  in  addition  to 
their  6  and  12  spool  exposure,  also  make  a  double-two  expos- 
ure film,  thus  enabling  the  user  to  make  but  two  expos- 
ures before  proving  his  results,  thereby  making  it  unneces- 
sary to  expose  a  complete  roll.  With  the  plate  camera,  while 
the  weight  of  glass  plates  is  a  little  more,  yet  one  can  by 
having  numerous  plate-holders  carry  as  many  plates 
with  him  as  he  desires,  and  when  but  a  single 
exposure  is  desired  he  can  make  it  and  prove  his 
result  before  making  more  exposures,  thus  enabling  him 
at  all  times  to  profit  by  his  previous  experience.  Either 
may  be  employed  successfully  by  proper  care  in  their  man- 
ipulation. 

632.  Exposure. — The  tendency  among  all  beginners 
of  hand  camera  work  is  towards  under-exposure.  It  is  a 
remote  contingency  that  the  beginner  will  over-expose. 
The  older  worker,  accustomed  to  time  exposures  and  the 


3 1 4  Libraty  of  Practical  Photography. 

use  of  restrainers  in  development,  dreads  the  under-expos- 
ure and  tries  to  avoid  it.  By  using  rapid  plates,  a  quick 
shutter  and  a  large  aperture  in  a  good  light,  he  over- 
exposes. While  the  beginner  has  not  learned  how  to  hold 
the  camera  still,  or  is  afraid  that  if  he  does  not  give  a  very 
short  exposure  there  will  be  signs  of  movement,  due  to  his 
own  unsteadiness  with  the  camera,  he  will  fire  off  his 
shutter  at  the  one-fiftieth  of  a  second  with  his  hand  camera 
what  he  would  give  a  whole  second  to  with  his  tripod 
camera.  He  should  not  forget,  while  making  his  exposure, 
that  there  is  no  possible  condition  that  would  emancipate 
him  wholly  from  the  relative  values  of  light,  speed  of  plate 
or  film,  speed  of  lens  and  shutter,  and  size  of  stop.  All  these 
are  factors  that  must  be  contended  with.  They  represent  so 
many  natural  laws.  Though  light  is  most  brilliant  at  mid- 
day, the  angle  at  which  the  lengthening  shadows  fall  be- 
tween two  and  four  P.  M.,  and  the  soft  clear  light  of  the 
early  morning,  between  nine  and  eleven  A.  M,,  give  the 
best  results  in  fully  exposed  negatives, 

633.  This  question  of  light  and  color  is  an  interesting 
one  for  the  beginner,  to  whom  all  sunlight  is  white  light. 
But  to  the  scientist,  light  is  made  up  of  several  colors — 
red,  yellow,  orange,  green,  blue,  indigo,  violet.  Now  the 
various  colors  act  differently  upon  the  sensitive  silver  salts 
in  the  emulsion  of  the  plate  or  film.  Blue,  indigo  and  violet 
rays  work  the  most  rapidly;  green  rays  are  slower,  and 
the  red,  yellow  and  orange  rays  are  the  slowest  to  affect 
the  plate.  Therefore,  a  landscape  in  which  the  prevailing 
color  is  green,  from  the  grass  and  trees,  with  blue  from 
the  sky  above,  will  require  a  shorter  exposure  than  if  we 
were  photographing  red  and  yellow  flowers  together.  If 
we  undertake   to  photograph   an   oriental   rug  or   an   oil 


Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  Work.  3 1 5 

painting  we  will  have,  perhaps,  all  the  colors  in  the  spec- 
trum. In  that  event  there  are  colors  to  which  the  bromide 
of  silver  is  most  sensitive,  and  also  those  which  have  the 
least  effect  on  this 'salt.  If  we  give  the  proper  exposure 
to  one  color  we  over-expose  another,  and  vice  versa.  What 
must  be  done?  There  are  several  remedies,  but  they  are  all 
based  on  one  general  principle,  viz.,  that  of  correcting 
color  value  by  reducing  them  all  to  a  common  or  uniform 
value.  Special  plates,  orthochromatic  plates,  for  instance, 
used  in  conjunction  with  a  ray  filter  or  color  screen  make 
it  possible  to  reproduce  the  various  colors  in  monochrome 
in  their  correct  values;  but  the  time  of  exposure  is  then 
lengthened  very  materially.  (This  is  also  described  at 
length  in  Volume  III  of  the  library.) 

634.  In  lighting,  reflection  is  another  prime  factor  to 
be  considered.  A  view,  for  instance,  taken  over  a  body  of 
water,  a  lake  or  ocean,  will  only  require  one-half  the  expos- 
ure of  an  ordinary  landscape  in  the  open,  because  of  the 
reflected  light  from  the  water.  The  same  is  true  of  snow 
scenes.  Furthermore,  the  quality  of  light  in  a  dry  climate 
is  much  quicker  than  it  is  in  a  moist  climate. 

635.  Holding  the  Hand  Camera. — Never  point  the 
camera  directly  at  the  sun,  or  the  result  will  be  a  flare  spot 
on  the  negative.  The  direction  of  the  light  should  be  from 
over  the  shoulder,  as  you  stand  with  your  back  partly  to 
the  sun.  When  photographing  a  house,  for  instance,  never 
take  a  full  broadside  view,  but  show  a  portion  of  the  front 
and  one  side.  The  lighted  side  is  preferable  in  most  cases. 
Sometimes  the  position  of  the  camera  relative  to  the  objects 
to  be  taken  may  make  all  the  difference  between  a  good  and 
bad  picture.  A  point  of  view  that  is  low  down  compresses 
the  ground  planes  and  emphasizes  the  object  in  the  fore- 


3 1 6  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

ground.  This  is  how  reeds,  long  grass  and  shrubs  are  given 
importance  in  the  foreground  of  some  pictures.  On  the 
contrary,  a  high  view-point  tends  to  cut  out  the  foreground 
which  may  not  always  be  pictorial.  In  a  general  way,  the 
further  we  are  from  the  subject  the  higher  the  camera  must 
be  held.  Thus  for  groups  10  or  15  feet  distant  hold  the 
camera  about  level  with  the  waist-line;  15  or  30  feet  dis- 
tant, chest  high;  and  for  more  distant  objects,  on  a  level 
with  the  chin.  The  beginner  will  probably  not  be  able  to 
hold  a  camera  quite  still  for  more  than  one  twenty-fifth  of 
a  second.  By  practicing,  it  can  be  held  still  for  a  quarter 
of  a  second,  when  conditions  are  favorable.  Never  take  a 
snap-shot  of  a  moving  object  while  it  is  in  the  shade,  as 
the  light  is  not  sufficient  to  permit  of  a  short  exposure.  In 
fact,  there  is  but  one  good  rule  with  regard  to  exposure,  viz., 
to  expose  for  the  shadows  and  let  the  high-lights  take  care 
of  themselves.  To  this  we  add — make  no  exposure  unless 
you  are  sure  that  your  subject  is  worthy  of  it,  and  that  all 
the  conditions  are  right  for  the  securing  of  good  results. 
636.  Choice  of  Subjects. — The  novice  should  never 
attempt  subjects  showing  strong  light  and  shade  contrasts. 
By  strong  contrast  we  mean  a  snow  scene  with  an  inky 
black  river;  a  narrow  street  with  one  side  in  strong  sun- 
light, the  other  in  sharply  defined  shadow;  a  brightly 
lighted  landscape  as  seen  through  an  open  doorway;  black 
and  white  costumes,  etc.  Unless  the  light  is  good  and 
ample  exposure  can  be  given,  nine  times  out  of  ten  such 
subjects  will  be  failures.  Oftentimes  unnatural  effects  are 
rendered  in  the  picture,  due  to  too  rapid  exposure.  The 
pictorial  effect  is  gone  because  the  picture  was  made  so 
rapidly  that  the  motion  of  the  scene  which  makes  the  pic- 


Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  IVork'  317 

ture  beautiful  is  lost.    All  such,  if  made  with  a  slow  expos- 
ure— say  one-half  second — enhance  the  view. 

637.  For  figure  studies  in  narrow  streets  where  the 
light  is  poor,  a  wide  aperture  lens  is  needed.  If  a  lens  of  this 
character,  working  say  at  f/6,  be  used,  exposures  of  1-25  of  a 
second  may  be  given  with  rapid  plates.  If  the  light  is  very 
dull  a  moving  object  cannot  be  taken,  as  sufficient  exposure 
would  cause  a  blurred  image. 

638.  For  buildings  and  architectural  work,  generally, 
the  lens  of  a  hand  camera  should  be  of  fairly  short  focus, 
and  there  should  be  an  ample  rise  to  the  front  of  the  cam- 
era. It  is  better  also  to  use  a  tripod  when  photographing 
objects  of  this  character.  Whenever  the  exposure  is  more 
than  1-25  of  a  second,  set  your  camera  on  a  tripod,  to 
steady  it. 

639.  Selection  of  Accessories. — Simplicity  should  be 
the  main  object  in  all  pictures.  The  introduction  of  figures 
should  be  done  sparingly.  Now  and  then  they  add  a  touch 
of  human  interest,  but  they  should  not  be  obtrusive,  as 
they  scatter  the  interest  and  tend  to  confuse  the  picture. 
Never  take  a  blank  sky  as  a  background  for  a  figure  study. 
The  face  is  sure  to  be  black,  even  though  the  sun  is  behind 
the  camera.  Place  the  figure  a  short  distance  from  some 
dark  object,  with  an  unobtrusive  background.  If  you  wish 
the  figure  in  greater  prominence,  let  the  background  be 
slightly  out  of  focus.  Then  if  the  figure  is  posed  in  a 
stooping  attitude,  be  sure  that  there  is  space  in  the  picture 
for  the  figure  to  stand  erect,  in  one's  imagination ;  otherwise 
the  sense  of  proportion  is  destroyed.  With  rapidly  moving 
objects,  when  negatives  are  being  made  for  later  enlarge- 
ment, one  must  be  very  careful  in  adjusting  the  speed  of 
the  shutter  so  that  the  blur  in  the  enlargement  will  not 


3 1 8  Libraty  of  Practical  Photography, 

exceed  1-50  of  an  inch.  The  best  time  for  pictures  is  when 
the  streets  are  fairly  open  and  when  the  light  is  good. 
When  the  light  is  poor,  or  when  the  sun  is  low  on  the 
horizon,  or  when  figures  are  in  the  shade,  the  hand  camera 
cannot  be  used  successfully  and  the  tripod  must  be  em- 
ployed. In  making  any  picture,  five  things  should  always 
be  remembered — first,  the  idea  to  be  conveyed ;  second,  the 
principal  point  of  interest;  third,  the  accessory  points,  or 
figures;  fourth,  the  setting  or  background,  etc.;  fifth,  the 
play  of  light  and  shade.  This  is  the  way  to  think  out  any 
picture. 

640.  Exposure  Meters. — The  exposure  of  the  plate  to 
the  action  of  light  in  the  camera  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance, and  most  of  the  failures  in  negative  making  are  due 
to  incorrect  exposure.  It  depends  upon  many  conditions 
such  as: 

The  speed  of  the  plate; 

The  time  of  the  day  and  the  season; 

Quality  and  strength  of  the  light; 

Kind  of  lens  and  size  of  diaphragm  used,  and 

Nature  of  object  to  be  photographed. 

641.  For  instance,  clouds,  snow  scenes,  marine  or  far 
distant  views  require  the  shortest  exposures,  while  groups 
in  the  shadow  of  dense  foliage  and  dark  objects  must  be 
exposed  longer.  Interiors  of  buildings,  etc.,  usually  need 
still  more  prolonged  exposure,  so  that  the  same  plate  may 
be  worked  in  1-100  part  of  a  second  with  large  diaphragm 
and  strong  light,  that  requires  from  ten  minutes  to  perhaps 
an  hour's  exposure  to  photograph  a  dimly  lighted  interior. 

642.  There  are  ingenious  exposure  tables  gotten  up  by 
different  parties  to  give  the  time  required,  considering  all 
these  circumstances,  but,  while  they  may  be  of  some  value 


Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  Work'  319 

and  assistance  to  the  operator,  a  great  deal  depends  on  his 
judgment  and  experience,  which  can  only  be  acquired  by 
continued  practice. 

643.  In  exposing  a  plate,  probably  the  best  guide  is 
the  image  upon  the  ground-glass,  as  seen  under  the  focus- 
ing cloth.  By  examining  the  strength  of  the  image,  the 
operator  will  be  able  to  judge  the  necessary  exposure  if  he 
knows  the  sensitiveness  of  the  plate  he  is  using. 

644.  It  will  require  but  a  few  trial  exposures  to  de- 
termine the  one  sufficiently  accurate  for  good  results,  and 
in  determining  future  exposures  the  results  of  preliminary 
exposures  may  be  taken  as  a  basis.  The  time  of  year,  time 
of  day  and  general  conditions  of  light  must  be  considered. 

645.  The  old  adage,  expose  for  detail  in  the  shadows 
and  let  the  high-lights  take  care  of  themselves,  is  a  good 
one,  but  like  most  other  good  things,  must  be  used  with 
discretion. 

646.  Exercise  your  best  judgment  in  determining  ex- 
posures, and  keep  a  record  of  each  exposure  made,  as  this 
will  be  a  great  help  in  determining  future  exposures. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Practical  Use  of  the  Camera. 

Architectural  and  Landscape  Photography  for  Beginners. 

647.  The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  encourage  the 
beginner  to  improve  his  work  by  diligent  and  intelligent 
effort  and  to  urge  him  take  pictures  of  a  high  standard  of 
excellence  only.  The  first  step  is  the  choice  of  a  subject 
for  the  picture.  Naturally,  street  scenes  suggest  them- 
selves in  this  connection,  and  in  these,  buildings  will  nec- 
essarily figure  very  largely.  So  we  have,  then,  our  first 
experience  with  Architectural  Photography.  Now,  in  every 
architectural  picture  the  first  and  most  necessary  require- 
ment is  true  and  perfect  perspective.  Perspective  is  the 
art  of  representing  objects  on  a  plane  surface  so  that  the 
picture  will  present  the  same  appearance  as  the  object  itself 
when  viewed  from  a  given  point. 

648.  Now  the  lens  does  not  always  see  the  object  as 
the  human  eye  sees  it.  This  is  often  the  case  with  uncor- 
rected lenses,  where  the  lens  is  at  variance  with  the  nor- 
mal angle  of  vision,  and  the  result  is  a  perspective  that  is 
untruthful  and  displeasing  to  the  trained  eye.  The  pho- 
tographer has  then  to  consider  three  things  in  making  a 
picture  of  this  kind:  The  horizon  line  in  the  picture,  the 
relation  of  the  point  of  view  to  the  sides  of  the  building, 
and  the  proximity  of  the  view  point  to  the  object.  A  low 
horizon  line,  for  instance,  tends  to  heighten  a  building, 

sa 


322  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

while  a  high  one  tends  to  lower  and  flatten  it.  However, 
if  you  desire  to  emphasize  the  height  of  a  building,  choose 
a  low  horizon  line.  Furthermore,  in  selecting  the  point  of 
view,  it  should  never  be  directly  in  front  of  the  building, 
nor  should  the  picture  show  equal  portions  of  the  front  or 
side.  The  point  of  view  had  best  be  a  little  to  one  side — 
right  or  left  of  the  front — to  show  the  mouldings  and  the 
ornaments.  In  general,  the  view  point  should  be  placed 
at  a  distance  of  about  three  times  the  height  of  the  build- 
ing. If  the  picture  is  taken  nearer,  sharp  and  vanishing 
lines  occur  that  cause  distortion. 

649.  In  111.  No.  69  is  shown  a  church  photographed 
from  the  proper  distance,  and  gives  a  most  pleasing  effect. 
In  111.  No.  70  we  have  a  low  horizon  line,  since  the  object 
is  to  emphasize  the  size  and  mass  of  the  school  building. 

650.  In  both  these  pictures  the  lines  and  proportions 
of  the  buildings  are  admirably  reproduced  in  the  photo- 
graphic prints.  Work  of  this  kind  is  always  its  own  re- 
ward. They  are  excellent  examples  of  good  architectural 
views  taken  by  beginners. 

651.  The  street  scene  in  111.  No.  71  is  likewise  a  good 
example  of  linear  perspective  and  lighting.  Being  a  time 
exposure,  the  camera  was  set  upon  the  shady  side  of  the 
street,  in  such  a  way  that  the  angle  of  vision  extended  up 
the  street  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach.  The  picture  is 
not  only  a  record  of  fact,  but  it  also  gives  one  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  street  as  a  main 
thoroughfare. 

652.  From  street  scenes,  the  next  step  is  naturally  to 
landscape  photography.  The  study  of  landscape  is  not 
only  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  amateur  or  beginner  in 
photography,  but  it  is  likewise  a  source  of  education  to 


Illustration  No.  69 
See  Paragraph  No.  649 


Illustration  No.  70 

Low  Horizon  Line  Emphasizing  Size  of  Building 

See  Paragraph  No.  649 


Illustration  No.  7i^See  Paragraph  651 


Illustration  No.  72— See  Paragraph  No.  654 


Practical  Use  of  the  Camera.  325 

him  in  his  chosen  art.  Apart  from  its  pleasures  there  are 
many  technical  uses  to  which  the  knowledge  thus  acquired 
may  be  applied.  The  beginner  will  make  his  own  applica- 
tion of  it  as  suits  his  interests  best.  The  chief  difficulty 
in  this  work  comes  from  inability  to  see  the  essential  ele- 
ments in  the  view,  or  having  seen  them,  in  not  being  able 
to  reproduce  them  in  his  picture. 

653.  There  are  several  essentials  that  constitute  the 
life  of  any  landscape.  First,  unity — that  is,  there  must  be 
a  central  point  of  interest  toward  which  all  lines  and  all 
other  objects  in  the  picture  tend.  When  this  has  been 
selected,  everything  else  in  the  picture  should  be  subor- 
dinated to  it.  If  there  are  several  objects  in  the  picture 
they  should  one  and  all  express  the  same  central  idea.  Any 
object  not  directly  connected  with  the  principal  object 
should  not  only  be  subordinated  but,  if  possible,  excluded 
from  the  picture  altogether.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  putting  it  out  of  focus,  throwing  it  into  the  background, 
or  directing  attention  to  the  principal  object  in  the  picture 
by  the  lines  of  the  composition. 

654.  The  next  essential  in  the  landscape  should  be 
variety,  i.  e.,  there  should  be  variety  in  the  unity  of  the 
picture.  This  brings  up  the  question  of  composition,  the 
most  important  question  perhaps  in  landscape  photography. 
In  111.  No.  72  we  have  an  ordinary  landscape  such  as  a 
beginner  might  make.  The  picture  itself  shows  thought 
and  intelligent  handling  on  the  part  of  its  author.  The 
central  point  of  interest  is  the  winding  roadway  that  leads 
up  into  the  picture.  There  is  good  perspective  and  the 
grass  and  shrubs  in  the  foreground  are  given  importance 
because  the  point  of  view  for  the  camera  was  low,  com- 
pressing the  ground  plans  and  emphasizing  the  foreground. 


326  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

The  handling  of  the  various  masses  of  light  and  shade  is 
fairly  good,  while  the  decorative  effect  of  the  tree  on  the 
left  of  the  picture  is  pleasingly  introduced.  There  is  detail 
in  these  shadows,  showing  that  the  camerist  exposed  for  the 
shadows,  leaving  the  lights  to  take  care  of  themselves,  a 
good  rule  to  follow  in  exposure  for  landscapes  generally. 

655.  In  111.  No.  73  we  have  another  type  of  open  air 
picture,  where  the  landscape  is  used  only  as  a  setting  for 
the  portrait  or  figure  study  of  a  girl.  The  entire  point  of 
interest  here  is  a  girl  plucking  a  rose.  The  idea  is  an  ex- 
cellent one  and  the  lighting  and  technique  are  good.  Fur- 
thermore, as  a  record  of  fact  it  is  no  doubt  true  to  nature, 
but  as  the  expression  of  an  idea  it  is  lacking  in  idealization. 
The  rosebush  is,  perhaps,  too  prominent  and  divides  at- 
tenton  with  the  girl,  while  the  pose  of  the  girl  on  the  edge 
of  the  pathway,  facing  the  camera  full  front,  with  her  arm 
behind  her  back,  is  too  artificial  to  say  the  least.  A  side 
view  of  the  girl  looking  at  the  roses  would  be  more  natural, 
and  by  getting  back  twice  the  distance  from  the  subject, 
with  the  camera,  the  view  would  be  in  better  proportion 
and  the  figure  would  not  appear  so  crowded  in  the  picture. 
Simplicity  is  the  keynote  to  success  in  picture  making. 
Learn  rather  to  leave  things  out,  and  how  to  put  one  thing 
into  the  photograph  well. 

656.  In  111.  74  we  have  a  nondescript  print  lacking  in 
the  first  essential  for  a  good  picture,  viz.,  unity.  There  is 
no  one  idea  expressed  by  this  photograph.  It  is  neither  a 
marine  nor  a  landscape.  Because  the  view  point  was  too 
low  down,  the  rocks  in  the  foreground  were  exaggerated 
and  hide  the  sea.  The  tree,  though  graceful  and  decorative 
in  itself,  is  an  excrescence  here,  and  hideously  out  of  place. 
Objects  that  are  proper  in  one  set  of  surroundings  may  not 


■n^4J^^'''^iy 

^H^^^^^S^K  '^^v^S'.^^l^&^K^^'^iiii^^^'^Hkdi 

wBi^S^^^Ll^  ^^^/Ks 

BB^^  ■yS'^^  ^^liil 

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Illustration  No.  73 

Landscape 

Setting 

for 

Portrait  Study 

See  Paragraph 
No.  65s 


Illustration 

No.  74 

A  Photograph 

NViiJcii  Lacks  the 

Expression  of 

An  Idea 

See  Paraj;;raph 
No.  656 


I 


Illustration  No.  75 

A  Marine  Snap  Shot 

See  Paragraph  No.  657 


Practical  Use  of  the  Camera.  329 

be  suitable  to  another.  This  applies  also  to  the  human 
figure  arranged  in  this  picture,  for  while  a  figure  in  a  land- 
scape gives  a  touch  of  human  interest  to  the  picture,  it  does 
not  mix  readily  with  landscape  accessories.  In  this  picture 
the  standing  lady  is  a  discordant  note.  Had  the  photog- 
rapher gone  up  the  beach  further  and  got  the  sweep  of 
shore  line  in  his  picture,  he  would  have  improved  it  very 
materially.  Trimming  an  inch  off  the  foreground  would 
help  still  further  to  center  the  interest,  but  the  picture  as 
a  whole  is  a  good  example  of  what  the  beginner  should 
not  do  in  picture  making.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of 
attention  due  to  propriety  and  the  fitness  of  things  in  pho- 
tography as  in  everything  else. 

657.  In  111.  No.  75  we  have  what  is  technically  known 
as  a  marine  snap-shot.  It  was  a  rapid  exposure  of  a  mov- 
ing steamship.  It  was  almost  impossible  to  focus  it  on  the 
ground-glass  because  it  was  rapidly  moving  away,  and  it 
was  equally  impossible  to  expose  the  plate  for  any  length 
of  time  for  the  same  reason.  Yet,  the  result  is  a  fine  nega- 
tive technically,  both  of  the  ship  and  the  churning  water 
in  its  wake.  When  the  lines  were  being  cast  off,  and  the 
boat  was  ready  to  start,  in  fancy  we  can  see  the  photog- 
rapher setting  his  hand  camera  upon  a  tripod  and  proceed- 
ing to  focus  on  the  ground-glass.  The  wind  was  blowing 
strongly  and  he  focused  on  the  paddle  wheel  because  it 
was  stationary.  When  it  began  to  revolve  he  closed  the 
shutter  and  adjusted  the  speed  quickly.  It  was  a  dark 
subject  for  a  snap-shot,  yet  the  water  in  foreground  was 
much  agitated  and  the  steamer  quivered  all  over  with  mo- 
tion that  threatened  to  blur  the  picture  and  spoil  it.  He, 
therefore,  tried  a  compromise  and  gave  the  view  a  1-25 
second  exposure.    This  exposure  was  quick  enough  to  show 


330  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

the  motion  of  the  water  and  was  long  enough  to  bring  out 
the  details  of  the  ship.  There  is  but  one  defect,  and  that 
is  the  direction  of  the  boat  headed  out  of  the  picture.  Oth- 
erwise, the  result  is  a  technically  fine  marine  snap-shot. 

658.  In  111.  No.  76  we  have  a  picture  of  a  moving  tug 
boat.  Here  the  direction  of  the  boat  is  more  pleasing.  It 
is  difficult  to  keep  it  in  focus,  however,  because  the  boat  is 
moving  towards  the  camera  all  the  time.  We  close  the 
shutter  and  place  the  index  above  the  lens  at  1-50,  leaving 
the  diaphragm  at  8.  We  insert  the  plate  holder  and  set  the 
shutter.  When  the  tug  has  reached  a  point  about  200  ft. 
away  from  the  camera  we  press  the  bulb  and  snap  the  pic- 
ture. Most  exposures  of  this  kind  are  guess  work,  in  a 
certain  sense,  but  guess  work  based  on  experience.  Time 
and  experience  will  teach  us  the  proper  exposure,  and  there 
is  no  other  method  by  which  the  beginner  can  acquire  it 
too  readily  and  so  well.  Everything  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  view  and  the  kind  of  light  we  work  in. 

659.  Most  of  the  unsatisfactory  work  in  photograph- 
ing landscapes  is  due  to  ignorance  of  composition  and  right 
manipulation  of  the  print.  Composition  deals  first  with  the 
grouping  of  objects — the  relation  of  masses — the  distribu- 
tion of  light  and  shade,  and  the  direction  of  lines  in  the 
picture.  Take  111.  No.  77  as  an  example.  Examine  the 
trees  that  crowd  the  picture.  The  central  point  of  interest 
is  the  running  brook,  which  is  the  chief  feature  of  the  pic- 
ture. Instead  of  making  the  water  prominent,  it  has  been 
thrown  back  and  dwarfed  by  the  obtruding  tree  trunks  in 
the  foreground.  It  is  the  usual  mistake  of  the  beginner, 
trying  to  put  too  many  things  into  the  picture.  Trimming 
at  least  an  inch  off  the  foreground  would  lessen  this  defect. 
Furthermore,  an  important  rule  is  that  the  lines  of  the  com- 


Illustration  No.  76 

Importance  of  Position  in  Snap  Shots 

See  Paragraph  No.  658 


Illustration  No.  77 
Example  of  Faulty  Composition 
See  Paragraph  No.  659 


Illustration  No.  78 
A  Pleasing  Landscape  Study 
See  Paragraph  No.  662 


Practical  Use  of  the  Camera.  333 

position  should  direct  attention  to  the  principal  object  sub- 
ordinating other  details.  The  lines  in  this  picture  are  out- 
side the  principal  object  and  too  far  away  from  it.  The 
composition  is  really  dominated  by  these  parallel  lines  of 
tree  trunks,  which  are  unduly  prominent  and  make  up  the 
composition.  More  than  this,  instead  of  giving  perspective 
to  the  composition,  they  are  perpendicular  and  parallel  to 
the  plane  of  the  plate,  which  is  also  contrary  to  all  the  rules 
of  composition.  There  is  certainly  no  feeling  for  atmos- 
phere in  this  picture,  and  a  landscape  without  atmosphere 
is  unbearable.  It  is  one  of  several  proofs  that  make  this 
picture  the  work  of  a  novice.  The  short  exposure  of  the 
snap-shot  method  accounts  for  this.  On  the  whole,  we  re- 
gard this  picture  as  a  lesson  to  the  beginner  on  what  not 
to  do. 

660.  In  order  to  get  pictorial  quality  in  a  landscape 
and  marine  work,  the  average  beginner  must  have  an  inti- 
mate knowledge  of  nature  as  well  as  an  understanding  of 
photographic  techique.  It  is  the  expression  of  this  rather 
than  the  recording  effects  that  must  be  tried  for  in  the 
picture.  With  good  ideas  and  a  right  command  of  the  med- 
ium, results  should  crystallize  into  form  in  the  picture  pro- 
duced. 

661.  A  photographer,  whether  he  is  a  beginner  or  an 
advanced  worker,  will  always  put  something  of  his  indiv- 
iduality into  any  picture  that  he  makes.  Individuality 
should  be  seen  in  this  and  be  just  as  much  a  part  of  the 
picture  as  the  trees,  the  shrubbery,  or  the  winding  brook. 
The  value  of  this  quality  in  his  work  reveals  the  man  and 
tells  us  something  of  his  personality.  The  picture  ceases  to 
be  a  mere  winding  brook,  with  trees  and  shrubbery  for  a 
setting;    it  is  really  his  interpretation  of  that  fact.     We 


334  Library  of  Practical  Photography 

not  only  see  the  view  but  we  see  it  through  his  eyes  and 
he  gives  us  a  chance  to  experience  the  same  feelings  of 
pleasure  and  admiration  that  stirred  him  at  the  sight.  Such 
a  man  is  usually  a  careful  and  methodical  worker,  and 
moves  deliberately.  If  he  is  careless  and  slovenly  you 
cannot  expect  to  make  a  picture  that  will  interpret  such 
subtle  and  elusive  elements  as  the  motives  and  feelings  of 
a  man's  soul. 

662.  In  111.  No.  78  we  have  a  pleasing  landscape  study, 
that  is  something  more  than  a  mere  record  of  fact.  In  it  one 
sees  the  beautiful  things  that  might  escape  the  ordinary 
observer,  if  this  particular  photographer  had  not  made  it. 
The  water  way,  the  stone  bridge  set  down  amid  the  foliage 
and  the  trees  in  a  soft  sunlight,  make  a  quiet,  peaceful 
landscape  full  of  poetry  and  grace.  The  low  horizon  in  the 
sky  line  gives  the  effect  of  distance  in  the  picture.  In 
every  complete  landscape  there  is  the  foreground,  the  mid- 
dle distance  and  the  background.  The  rule  is  that  the 
foreground  must  always  be  in  focus.  The  detail  there 
should  be  reasonably  sharp,  while  the  middle  distance  is 
sharp  only  when  the  foreground  has  been  cut  oflf.  The 
background  is  always  out  of  focus,  and  without  detail.  The 
tall  trees  in  the  foreground  here  are  sharply  in  focus  and 
most  decorative.  But  the  out  of  focus  background  in  the 
picture  gives  it  the  feeling  of  atmosphere.  It  also  em- 
phasizes the  lines  in  the  picture,  the  undulating  banks  of 
the  water  way  and  the  graceful  lines  of  the  foliage  leading 
up  to  the  bridge,  the  central  point  of  interest.  When  this 
rule  is  overlooked,  the  composition  is  sure  to  suffer  and 
the  picture  will  be  bad.  Again,  the  lighting  here  is  very 
soft  and  pleasing,  and  evenly  distributed  all  over  the  print. 
Too  bright  an  illumination,  thoroughly  diffused,  and  with- 


Practical  Use  of  the  Camera.  335 

out  shadows  is  bad.  Shadows  naturally  follow  the  light, 
and  are  the  life  and  color  of  any  landscape.  In  this  particu- 
lar view,  the  shadows  are  transparent,  i,  e.,  have  detail  in 
them  showing  that  the  exposure  was  all  right.  Of  course, 
the  development  is  also  included  in  this  and  is  a  strong  fac- 
tor in  securing  successful  shadows.  On  the  whole,  this 
picture  is  a  fine  example  of  the  possibilities  of  photography 
in  the  hands  of  a  serious  minded  beginner,  who  wants  to 
secure  the  best  results  attainable  with  the  camera. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
Elementary  Snow  Photography. 

663,  In  making  snow  pictures,  aside  from  the  selection 
of  view  the  principal  secret  lies  in  the  proper  exposure  and 
the  angle  of  light.  Early  in  the  forenoon,  before  9  o'clock, 
or  in  the  afternoon  after  2  o'clock,  will  g^ve  you  excellent 
angles.  The  very  best  results  are  obtained  early  in  the 
morning,  when  the  shadows  are  long.  As  the  white  snow 
supplies  a  strong  reflector,  exposure  will  necessarily  be  very 
much  shortened.  Snow  pictures  can  be  successfully  made 
only  in  bright  sunlight,  as  you  must  have  some  high-lights 
and  shadows,  even  in  the  pure  white  snow.  Therefore,  the 
angle  of  light  at  which  the  sun  falls  upon  the  objects  in  the 
snow  (producing  long  or  short  shadows)  has  much  to  do 
with  the  success  of  the  view. 

664.  In  making  pictures  with  snow  on  the  gpround, 
the  exposure  must  be  made  in  bright  sunlight,  and  the 
time  necessary  for  the  exposure  would  be  one-half  of  the 
exposure  given  under  ordinary  conditions.  For  instance, 
if  you  were  making  an  exposure  under  ordinary  conditions, 
giving  l-25th  of  a  second,  the  same  view  made  with  snow 
on  the  ground  must  be  made  in  half  the  time,  or  l-50th 
of  a  second.  Should  the  sun  be  obscured,  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  secure  an  interesting  picture.  If  pictures  must  be 
made  with  a  cloudy  sky  and  snow  on  the  ground,  the  ex- 
posure given  should  never  be  more  than  half  of  that  required 

m 


338  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

for  pictures  of  the  same  scene  without  snow.  You  must 
remember  that  we  do  not  see  light,  Hght  enables  us  to  see. 
The  plate  is  made  sensitive  to  light,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  light  is  the  only  agent  that  can  and  does  record  the 
image  on  the  plate.  Therefore,  with  a  sharp  focus  of  the 
object,  a  normal  exposure  and  proper  development,  a  nega- 
tive should  result  which  will  represent  the  contrast  of  light 
and  shade  exactly  as  it  is  in  the  view. 

665.  It  will  be  well  to  remember  that  when  making 
pictures  with  snow  on  the  ground,  and  in  bright  sunlight, 
the  angle  of  the  sunlight  should  never  be  towards  the  cam- 
era, even  when  coming  from  one  side,  but  should  be  directed 
towards  the  object  you  are  photographing,  as  the  reflection 
from  the  snow  is  always  thrown  in  the  same  direction  in 
which  the  rays  of  the  sun  travel.  If  this  direction  is  to- 
wards the  object  you  are  photographing,  the  object  will  be 
strongly  illuminated  by  the  reflection.  If  it  should  be 
toward  the  lens,  then  the  plate,  through  the  lens,  receives 
the  flood  of  reflected  light,  thus  causing  fog. 

666.  Even  with  the  sun  at  the  correct  angle  there  will 
appear,  by  prolonged  exposure,  a  certain  amount  of  strong 
light  between  the  object  you  are  photographing  and  the 
lens.  The  distance  is  sure  to  be  obliterated  and  your  shad- 
ows will  have  little  or  no  detail,  unless  some  means  are 
available  for  reducing  the  activity  of  the  strong  reflection 
of  the  sunlight  upon  the  snow.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
(without  snow  on  the  ground),  if  you  desired  to  produce 
more  detail,  you  would  prolong  the  exposure  and  thereby 
secure  detail  in  the  shadows ;  but  with  snow  on  the  ground, 
prolonged  exposure  to  any  great  extent  would  be  of  no 
avail,  because  the  strong  reflection  from  the  snow  would 
cause  a  curtain  of  strong  light  between  the  lens  and  the 


i 


Elementary  Snow  Photography.  341 

object  you  are  photographing.  This  curtain  would  reflect 
stronger  light  upon  the  plate  than  the  actual  light  visible 
on  the  object  to  be  photographed. 

667.  The  sensitized  plate  is  always  attracted  by  the 
strongest  lights  first,  whether  reflected  or  direct,  and  in  con- 
sequence  the  more  subdued  lights  are  left  very  hazy  and 
misty  in  the  shadows,  so  the  only  way  this  haze  and  mist  can 
be  overcome  is  by  quick  exposure. 

668.  Strong  sunlight  on  the  white  snow,  especially 
where  the  sun  faces  the  instrument,  will  have  the  same 
effect  upon  the  lens  and  plate  as  it  would  upon  the  human 
eye,  when  looking  at  the  snow  with  the  sun  shining  on  it. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  eyes  are  weakened  and  almost  blinded 
by  the  dazzling  white  light.  By  looking  across  a  plain 
of  snow  at  some  distant  object,  with  the  sun  shining  toward 
you,  you  would  scarcely  see  the  object,  and  the  longer  you 
look  the  less  you  can  see.  This  is  exactly  what  happens 
to  the  sensitized  plate  through  the  lens,  so  that  the  longer 
the  exposure,  under  the  named  conditions,  the  less  the  lens 
will  see.  The  result  is  that  you  have  little  detail  on  your 
exposed  plate,  and,  like  the  human  eye,  the  plate  will  have 
fogged  over  and  the  image  will  appear  veiled. 

669.  You  will  observe  when  you  first  glance  at  the 
snow,  even  with  the  sun  at  one  side  instead  of  facing  you, 
your  vision  is  clear  and  you  can  see  all  the  detail.  After  a 
second  or  so,  however,  the  eyes  weaken  by  the  blazing  light. 
Therefore,  the  short  exposure  on  your  plate  will  give  you 
the  same  results  and  you  will  get  plenty  of  detail,  while 
with  a  longer  exposure  you  get  fog. 

670.  By  the  use  of  a  ray  filter,  which  is  a  specially  pre- 
pared colored  glass  and  can  be  fitted  over  the  front  of  any 
ordinary  lens,  the  activity  of  this  curtain  of  strong  light 


342  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

(the  reflection  of  the  sun  on  the  snow)  will  be  reduced 
enough  to  give  a  good  rendering  in  the  negative  in  the 
amount  of  high-lights  and  the  detail  in  the  shadows.  This 
ray  filter  has  the  same  effect  upon  the  plate  as  a  pair  of 
smoked  or  blue  glasses  would  have  over  the  eyes,  for  with 
them  we  would  be  able  to  look  at  the  sun  a  long  time  with- 
out straining  the  eyes.  With  a  ray  filter  longer  exposure 
may  be  given  the  plate,  if  necessary,  without  fog.  The 
color  of  the  ray  filter  should  be  light  amber.  This  will  act 
on  the  lens  as  the  glasses  would  on  the  eyes.  By  giving 
a  slightly  longer  exposure  when  using  the  ray  filter,  you 
will  preserve  the  detail  in  the  foreground  and  at  the  same 
time  have  detail  in  the  shadows. 

671.  There  are  many  good  ray  filters  on  the  market 
and  they  are  inexpensive.  They  can  be  obtained  from  any 
dealer  in  photographic  supplies.  In  ordering  ray  filters 
always  be  sure  to  give  the  exact  outside  measurement  of 
the  lens  the  filter  is  to  fit  over. 

672.  For  an  ordinary  landscape  in  winter,  a  view  point 
must  be  selected  that  will  give  good  shadows.  The  light 
should  come  from  one  side  and  not  directly  back  of  you. 
A  low  sun  is  preferable,  as  it  supplies  long  shadows ;  there- 
fore, the  best  effects  will  be  obtained  early  in  the  morn- 
ing or  late  in  the  afternoon.  A  very  quick  exposure  must 
be  given,  for  the  shadows  are  fully  illuminated  by  the  re- 
flection from  the  snow.  A  smaller  stop  can  be  used  for 
snow  pictures  than  other  views,  the  reflection  of  light  being 
so  much  greater.  The  immediate  foreground  of  a  snow 
scene  must  be  broken  up  with  some  dark  objects — any- 
thing that  will  supply  shadows  or  dark  spots.  A  few  tracks 
on  a  level  expanse  of  snow  will  give  some  shadow  and 
add  greatly  to  the  effect. 


Elementary  Snow  Photography.  343 

673.  Some  very  picturesque  scenes  can  frequently  be 
obtained  after  a  heavy  fall  of  snow.  Places,  which  ordi- 
narily would  be  anything  but  attractive,  make  very  pretty 
pictures  with  snow  on  the  ground.  Snow  pictures,  to  be 
interesting,  must  always  have  some  objects  that  will  throw 
shadows,  in  order  to  break  the  mass  of  white.  For  example, 
take  an  old  rail  fence  loaded  with  snow,  along  a  driveway; 
the  shadows  from  the  old  rails  upon  the  snow  give  a  pretty 
effect.  For  another,  take  a  roadway  with  low  shrubbery 
along  the  banks,  limbs  of  trees  covered  with  snow.  The 
contrast  between  the  dead  black  trees,  the  shrubbery  and 
the  snow,  makes  them  appear  really  beautiful.  Again,  we 
have  an  open  field,  a  single  log  hut  or  an  old  barn,  a  com 
crib  in  the  barn-yard,  all  of  which  make  interesting  pictures 
if  they  are  photographed  with  the  proper  light  to  produce 
long  shadows. 

674.  Lens. — Attention  must  be  given  to  the  lens  dur- 
ing frosty  weather.  See  that  it  does  not  scum  over  by  the 
condensing  of  moisture  in  the  air.  This  will  occur  on  very 
cold  days  and  when  first  taking  the  camera  from  the  case. 
After  the  lens  has  been  exposed  for  a  short  time  so  that  it 
has  the  same  temperature  as  the  air,  it  will  clear  up.  In 
order  to  avoid  reflections  from  the  snow  into  the  lens,  you 
can  make  a  cone  of  black  pasteboard  and  fit  it  around  the 
underside  of  the  lens  tube,  or  holding  the  slide  of  the  plate 
holder  or  any  opaque  substance  under  the  lens  (not  too 
close  to  cut  off  any  of  the  view)  will  prevent  reflections. 
Reflections  will  not  always  occur,  much  depending  upon 
the  angle  of  light  of  the  view.  The  reflection  can,  of  course, 
be  detected  upon  the  ground-glass  when  focusing,  and 
should  it  appear,  it  can  be  overcome  by  applying  the  above 
methods. 


344  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

675.  Developing. — To  develop  snow  scenes  use  the 
ordinary  developing  formula,  diluting  one-third  with  water, 
being  careful  of  the  temperature.  Remember  that  the  best 
chemical  action  takes  place  at  65°  Fahr.  Develop  for 
softness,  but  carry  the  development  a  trifle  farther  than  you 
would  ordinarily,  thereby  producing  a  little  more  density. 
In  this  way  pure  white  snow  is  secured.  Never  undertake 
to  develop  the  negatives  when  they  are  chilled  and  cold, 
as  they  will  develop  flat  and  even  worse  than  a  greatly 
over-timed  exposure. 

676.  If  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  when  pre- 
paring architectural  or  landscape  lessons,  you  will  need  to 
apply  the  rules  governing  the  necessary  exposure  given  in 
this  lesson,  and  time  accordingly.  It  is  advisable  for  your 
first  experience  with  snow  photography,  that  you  make  at 
least  two  exposures  of  the  same  scene.  The  results  in  de- 
veloping the  first  will  enable  you  to  judge  how  to  develop 
the  second.  Proof  prints  should  be  made  from  both  plates, 
on  the  back  of  which  should  be  noted  all  data  pertaining  to 
the  producing  of  the  results.  These  prints  should  be  dated 
and  filed  in  the  proof  file,  for  future  reference. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
Elementary  Flashlight  Photography. 

677.  Frequently  it  is  desired  to  make  a  photograph 
of  an  improperly  lighted  interior.  The  problem,  then,  is 
to  secure  even  illumination  and,  at  the  same  time,  procure 
detail  in  the  deepest  shadows  of  certain  portions.  Perhaps 
there  will  be  but  one  window  in  the  room,  and  you  might 
wish  to  point  the  camera  directly  toward  it  in  order  to 
photograph  certain  objects  in  that  particular  part  of 
the  room.  It  would,  of  course,  be  necessary,  if  using 
daylight,  to  have  the  curtains  raised  and  allow  the  light 
to  enter  here.  But  for  average  work  it  would  be  almost 
impossible  to  secure  proper  results  by  pointing  the  camera 
directly  towards  the  source  of  light.  There  may  be  other 
difficulties  besides,  which  would  not  permit  you  to  secure 
the  desired  results  by  using  daylight  as  your  illuminant.  In 
such  cases  you  can  resort  to  artificial  light.  The  best  and  most 
convenient  to  employ  is  flashlight.  There  are  many  meth- 
ods of  using  this  artificial  light,  the  two  ordinarly  em- 
ployed being  flash-powder  and  flash-sheets. 

678.  For  many  purposes  flashlight  is  more  desirable 
than  sunlight.  If  properly  handled  it  can  always  be  de- 
pended upon  to  give  illumination  when  wanted.  With  it 
you  will  be  able  to  secure  just  the  right  amount  of  brilliancy. 
It  can  also  be  so  placed  that  the  shadows  will  fall  in  the 
desired  direction.    To  the  amateur  worker  especially,  flash- 

345 


346  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

light  photography  is  a  special  convenience,  and  as  photo- 
graphic work  is  frequently  confined  to  the  night,  he  should 
by  all  means  understand  its  use. 

679.  It  is  frequently  desirable  to  photograph  a  large 
room  which  is  illuminated  by  only  one  small  source  of  light. 
Again,  to  secure  a  full  time  exposure  in  the  darkest  corner 
of  the  room  would  cause  a  decided  over-exposure  near  the 
window.  The  flash-powder  may  be  placed  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  it  will  illuminate  this  dark  corner,  being  so  con- 
cealed by  some  article  of  furniture  or  a  screen,  that  it  does 
not  strike  the  lens.  These  ordinary  uses  of  the  flashlight  will 
enable  any  amateur  to  secure  successful  results;  in  fact  be 
equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  ordinary  snap-shots  out  of 
doors. 

680.  Flash-Powder. — Flash-powder  is  put  up  in 
various  ways — it  is  usually  supplied  in  one  ounce  bottles 
or  boxes.  Perhaps  the  most  popular  brands  of  flash-powder 
(yet  all  are  good)  are  the  Luxo,  the  Nichols,  the  Victor 
and  the  Eastman.  The  latter  company  also  put  up  what 
is  known  as  flashlight  cartridges,  which  have  a  fuse  at- 
tached to  the  cartridge  for  igniting  them.  Each  cartridge 
contains  a  certain  amount  of  powder.  When  a  large  flash 
is  required,  more  than  one  cartridge  may  be  employed. 
They  also  supply  what  is  known  as  flash-sheets,  which  are 
used  by  simply  pinning  them  up  against  a  cardboard  on 
the  wall  and  igniting  the  lower  corner.  (See  Paragraph 
685.) 

681.  Caution. — Flash-powder  is  just  exactly  as  dan- 
gerous to  handle  as  gun-powder.  It  must  be  kept  away 
from  heat.  Friction  will  sometimes  ignite  it;  therefore, 
be  very  careful  in  handling  it.  Flash-powder  must  never 
be  used  in  a  magnesium  lamp,  for  with  this  lamp  the  mag- 


Elementary  Flashlight  Photography.  347 

nesium  is  stored  in  a  chamber  and,  through  a  rubber  tube, 
blown  into  the  flame.  If  flash-powder  were  used  in  this 
machine  you  would  have  an  explosion.  We  give  these 
cautions  so  that  you  will  not  meet  with  accident,  yet  there 
is  practically  no  danger  if  these  precautions  are  observed. 

682.  Preparing  the  Flash-Powder. — There  are  differ- 
ent ways  of  operating  or  igniting  the  flash-powder.  The 
most  convenient  for  amateur  use,  however,  are  either  the 
flash  cartridges  or  flash-sheets,  the  latter  of  which  are  used 
by  simply  pinning  them  up  against  a  cardboard  on  the 
wall  and  igniting  the  lower  corner.  The  same  general  prin- 
ciples will  apply  whether  the  lamp,  the  cartridge,  or  the 
flash-sheet  be  used.  Another  simple  method,  where  Luxo 
or  other  flash-powders  are  used,  and  where  you  have  no 
machine  for  igniting  the  powder,  is  to  use  an  ordinary  flat 
tin  pan. 

683.  To  prepare  Luxo  or  other  bulk  powders  for  flash- 
light, when  a  flat  pan  is  used,  place  a  little  cotton  batting 
or  absorbent  cotton  on  a  pan  (one  with  a  handle  preferred). 
Pour  sufficient  Luxo,  or  whatever  powder  you  use,  on  the 
cotton,  well  scattered.  Allow  a  small  piece  of  the  cotton 
to  hang  over  the  edge  of  the  pan,  say  five  to  seven  inches. 
Use  this  as  a  fuse  for  igniting  and  setting  off  the  flashlight. 
When  you  are  ready,  place  the  pan  on  a  table  or  step- 
ladder,  and  light  the  end  of  the  cotton  with  a  match  or 
lighted  candle.  Always  light  the  fuse  from  below,  never 
from  above.  Do  not  look  into  the  flash,  but  as  soon  as  you 
light  the  fuse  turn  your  face  away  from  the  powder,  as 
it  is  very  dazzling  and  extremely  hot. 

684.  Placing  the  Flashlight. — The  light  should  always 
be  placed  two  feet  behind  and  two  or  three  feet  to  one  side 
of  the  camera.  It   is  very  essential   to  avoid  having  the 


348  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

flash  come  into  the  field  of  the  lens,  which  would  blur  the 
picture.  This  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  placed  in  front  of 
or  even  on  a  line  with  the  front  of  the  camera.  It  should  be 
placed  to  one  side,  as  well  as  behind,  so  as  to  throw  a  slight 
shadow  and  give  a  little  relief  in  lighting.  It  is  best  to 
have  the  flash  a  little  higher  than  the  camera.  A  sheet 
of  white  cardboard  may  be  set  up  a  couple  feet  behind  the 
flash,  and  as  this  will  act  as  a  reflector  the  strength  of 
the  light  will  be  increased. 

685.  Flash-Sheet. — Pin  a  flash-sheet  by  one  corner 
to  a  piece  of  cardboard,  which  has  previously  been  fixed 
in  a  perpendicular  position.  If  the  cardboard  is  white  it 
will  act  as  a  reflector.  Now,  having  the  camera  and  the 
powder  in  position,  open  the  shutter  of  the  camera  as  for 
time  exposure,  using  the  stop  ordinarily  employed  for  snap- 
shots. Stand  at  arm's  length  and  touch  a  match  to  the 
lower  corner  of  the  flash-sheet.  As  soon  as  the  flash  is 
over,  close  the  shutter. 

686.  If  it  is  necessary  to  use  two  or  more  sheets,  they 
should  be  pinned  to  the  cardboard,  one  above  the  other, 
the  corners  slightly  over-lapping.  As  a  matter  of  pre- 
caution, place  a  piece  of  cardboard  beneath,  as  well  as  one 
behind,  the  flash-sheet.  If  a  piece  of  burning  powder  should 
fall,  it  will  then  do  no  injury. 

687.  Flash  Cartridges. — Remove  the  cover  and  rubber 
band  from  the  cartridge  and  place  it  upon  a  cardboard. 
Now,  open  the  shutter,  ignite  the  fuse  while  at  arm's 
length,  protecting  the  eyes,  in  the  meantime,  from  the 
brilliant  flash.  After  the  flash  close  the  shutter.  If  two 
cartridges  are  required,  the  contents  of  one  of  them  can 
be  poured  into  the  other,  care  being  taken,  however,  that 
if  any  of  the  powder  spills  off  it  does  not  lie  in  such  a 


Elementary^  Flashlight  Photography.  349 

position  as  to  practically  shorten  the  fuse.  The  fuses  work 
very  quickly;  therefore  you  should  be  very  careful  to  get 
away  before  the  flash  goes  off.  Never  stand  with  your  face 
over  the  powder,  nor  even  have  your  hand  above  the 
powder.  When  the  flash  takes  place  the  flame  shoots  up- 
ward; therefore,  if  you  keep  below  the  flash  there  will  be 
much  less  danger.  Do  not  become  excited  or  nervous,  as 
there  is  no  need  of  it.  You  should  work  carefully,  and  by 
observing  the  above  cautions  there  will  be  absolutely  no 
danger. 

688.  Flash-Lamp. — There  are  various  flash-lamps  that 
may  be  purchased  at  prices  ranging  from  $1.00  up.  These 
will  be  found  to  give  excellent  satisfaction  and  there  is  less 
danger  in  employing  them.  The  Nichols,  Jr.  lamp,  which 
sells  for  $7.50,  is  the  most  practical  low  priced  amateur  lamp 
on  the  market.  There  are  hand  lamps,  however,  which  may 
be  purchased  for  $1.00  or  $1.50,  that  will  give  equal  results. 

689.  The  Powder. — The  amount  of  powder  required  to 
light  a  room  depends  entirely  upon  the  color  of  the  walls 
and  hangings,  as  well  as  the  distance  of  the  object  furthest 
from  the  camera.  The  following  table,  based  on  the  East- 
man flash  cartridge,  is  approximately  correct  when  using  the 
ordinary  hand  camera  or  kodak  with  the  lens  wide  open : 

690.  Table.— 

TABLE. 

For  10  feet  distance  and  light  walls  f'  Cartridge  No.  2,  or 
and  hangings  use  irFTa^hSr'"' 

For   10  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  f^  Cartridges  No.  2,  or 
and  hangings  use  1  ^  even  teaspoonsful 

^    ^  1 2  Flash   Sheets. 

For  IS  feet  distance  and  light  walls  f^  Cartridges  No.  2,  or 
and  hangings  use  [^  ^/i^h'^I^P--^"' 


350  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

For  ,3  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  1 3  Cartridge.  N.^.  or 
and  hangings  use  |J  p.^^^  g^J^j^ 

For  .5  feet  distance  and  light  walls  (3  Caj^^^if^^N-  3  or 
and  hangings  use  |3  pj^^^  g^^^j^ 

For  25  feet  distance  and  dark  walls  H  ^'"■'';''^"„?°-,S  "^ 
and  hangings  use  JrFYashlKer" 

Note— The  No.  i  Cartridges  hold  50%  more  powder  and  the 
No.  3  about  half  as  much  as  the  No.  2  and  should  be  used  accord- 
ingly. 

691.  Portraits. — Place  the  sitter  in  a  chair  partly- 
facing  the  camera,  and  turn  the  face  slightly  towards  the 
camera,  which  latter  should  be  at  the  height  of  an  ordinary- 
table.  The  proper  distance  from  the  camera  to  the  subject 
will  depend  upon  the  size  of  image  you  wish  to  produce. 
This  may  be  ascertained  by  looking  at  the  image  in  the 
finder.  The  subject  should  not  be  arranged  facing  the 
flash,  but  the  figure  and  face  should  be  slightly  turned  from 
the  light. 

692.  Groups. — Groups  should  be  arranged  in  a  semi- 
circular form,  facing  the  camera.  Each  member  of  the 
group  should  be  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  camera. 
In  case  of  groups  of  a  dozen  or  more  members  some  of  them 
may  be  seated,  others  may  be  arranged  standing.  Usually 
the  tall  members  appear  best  in  a  sitting  or  lounging  posi- 
tion. If  it  is  necessary  that  any  of  the  subjects  be  seated 
on  the  floor,  the  legs  should  be  drawn  in  closely — not  extend- 
ed toward  the  camera. 

693.  Important. — It  is  always  best  to  have  the  room 
well  lighted  when  making  flashlights.  Especially  is  this 
advisable  when  making  portraits  or  groups,  for  if  the 
room  is  darkened  the  sudden  flash  of  the  powder  so  strains 
the  eyes  of  the  sitters  that  they  almost  invariably  have 


Supplementary  Flashlight  Photography .  351 

a  staring  look.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  room  is  already 
well  illuminated  by  electric  or  lamp  light,  the  strain  will 
not  be  great  and  the  eyes  will  have  a  natural  expression. 
When  the  room  is  brightly  lighted,  however,  the  shutter 
should  not  be  opened  until  just  an  instant  before  the  flash 
is  made.    It  must  also  be  closed  immediately  after  the  flash. 

694.  When  more  than  one  flashlight  is  to  be  taken  the 
windows  should  be  opened  and  time  allowed  between  each 
flash  to  free  the  room  thoroughly  from  smoke.  If  this  pre- 
caution is  not  taken,  those  pictures  which  are  made  while 
there  is  smoke  in  the  room  will  have  a  foggy  appearance.  No 
matter  how  little  smoke  there  is  in  the  room  it  may  cause 
a  fogged  negative,  as  the  lens  is  even  keener  than  the  eye 
in  detecting  it. 

695.  The  flash-sheets  are  not  instantaneous,  and, 
therefore,  when  making  portraits  or  groups  yqu  should 
request  your  subject  to  remain  still,  just  the  same  as 
for  a  time  exposure.  The  flash-sheets  are  best  to  use  when 
photographing  general  interior  views  in  which  there  are 
no  moving  objects.  From  one  to  two  seconds  are  con- 
sumed in  burning  a  single  flash-sheet,  and  the  light  is  much 
less  brilliant  than  the  instantaneous  flash.  This  is  a  de- 
cided advantage  when  the  subjects  can  be  depended  upon 
to  keep  quiet,  as  the  eyes  are  not  strained  by  the  flash 
and  do  not  have  the  staring  effect  so  often  seen  in  flash- 
light pictures.  In  photographing  children  or  groups  it  is 
better  to  use  the  flash-cartridge,  or  the  flash-lamp,  as  either 
of  these  methods  is  practically  instantaneous. 

696.  Development. — When  developing  negatives  that 
have  been  made  by  flashlight,  you  should  keep  them  as  far 
from  the  ruby  light  as  possible.  In  fact,  it  is  advisable 
to  shade  them  from  the  rays  of  the  ruby  light.    The  reason 


352  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

for  this  is  that  the  image  will  not  appear  as  quickly  on 
such  negatives  as  on  those  made  by  daylight.  Develop- 
ment might  proceed  a  little  slowly,  but  you  should  judge 
completed  development  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  you 
would  ordinary  exposures  made  in  daylight. 

697.  Practice  Work. — It  is  advisable  for  your  first 
practice  work  to  use  the  minimum  amount  of  powder  given 
in  the  scale,  and  if  upon  developing  the  plate  you  find  it 
under-exposed,  you  will  understand  that  more  powder  must 
be  used,  when  working  under  the  same  circumstances,  and 
the  exact  additional  amount  must  be  estimated  by  the 
appearance  of  the  quality  of  the  negative  first  developed. 
For  your  first  experiments  it  is  advisable  to  select  the  inter- 
ior of  a  room,  locating  your  camera  so  as  to  take  in  as  much 
of  the  room  as  possible ;  then  arrange  your  flashlight  ready 
for  the  exposure. 

698.  Above  all  things  when  handling  flash-powder, 
whether  in  sheets,  cartridges,  with  a  flash-machine,  or  an 
ordinary  tin  pan,  keep  cool,  work  carefully,  and  never  hold  your 
hands  or  face  over  the  powder  at  any  time.  When  all  is  in 
readiness,  first  press  the  bulb  and  open  the  shutter,  and 
with  a  lighted  match  or  candle  (usually  a  tape  is  used) 
light  the  fuse.  As  soon  as  you  have  done  so  turn  the  face 
from  the  light,  looking  into  the  direction  of  the  view  of 
the  room,  to  observe  the  effect  of  the  illumination.  As 
soon  as  the  exposure  is  made  close  the  shutter  or  cap  the 
lens. 

699.  With  a  little  experience  you  will  be  able  to  work 
the  flashlight  as  well  as  daylight,  even  with  groups  and 
portraits  in  the  home.  When  developing  flashlight  plates 
use  diluted  developer,  and  carry  the  plate  to  a  good  strength. 
Make  proof  prints  from  each  experiment,   noting  on  the 


Elementary  Flashlight  Photography.  353 

back  of  each  all  data  concerning  the  manner  of  procedure, 
such  as  the  amount  of  powder,  the  size  of  stop  used,  size  of 
room  you  are  working  in,  color  of  the  surroundings,  method 
of  igniting  the  powder,  etc.  File  all  proofs  containing  data 
in  your  proof  file,  for  future  reference. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Dark-Room  from  a  Bath-Room. 

By  Richard  Hines,  Jr. 

THE  dark-room  of  the  average  amateur  is  a  work  of 
evolution,  and  it  is  not  hard,  after  a  look  into  the 
dark-room  to  come  very  near  judging  the  manner 
of  the  amateur  who  inhabits  it. 

My  own  experience  in  this  matter  of  evolution  may  be 
interesting  to  those  who  have  but  lately  begun  their  climb 
up  the  photographic  ladder,  and  before  whom  there  are 
now  appearing  bright  visions  of  salon  honors  some  time 
in  the  future.  My  photographic  birth,  so  to  speak,  took 
place  in  the  family  bath-room,  where  I  sat  and  sweltered 
during  spare  afternoons  and  nights  in  an  effort  to  coax  an 
image  out  of  some  little  square  pieces  of  glass,  covered 
with  a  creamy  white  substance,  which  seemed  to  have  a 
most  persistent  habit  of  turning  black  as  ink  almost  the 
minute  the  developing  solution  was  poured  on.  At  first 
there  were  no  conveniences  in  that  dark-room  beyond  the 
running  water  from  the  tap.  Finally,  a  little  cabinet,  to  go 
up  against  the  wall,  was  thought  out,  and  a  carpenter 
was  consulted.  He  was  given  the  idea,  which  he  materialized 
into  a  developing  cabinet,  for  one  dollar  and  a  half  in  the 
coin  of  the  realm.  This  cabinet  was  supported  on  brackets 
and  screwed  into  the  wall  of  the  bath-room.  It  had  three 
shelves,  and  the  cross-pieces,  which  supported  the  shelves, 

355 


356  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

fitted  into  notched  places  on  the  side,  Hke  the  shelves  of  a 
bookcase^  so  that  the  distance  between  the  shelves  was 
optional.  The  door,  or  lid,  of  this  cabinet  closed  perpen- 
dicularly, just  like  some  of  the  writing  desks  you  have  seen, 
and  when  it  was  down  it  formed  a  table,  on  which  were 
placed  the  developing  trays,  while  the  little  developing 
lamp  found  a  place  back  in  the  cabinet.  Many  a  dollar's 
worth  of  plates  and  films  was  wasted  at  the  shrine  of  that 
cabinet;  but  that  was  not  the  fault  of  the  cabinet,  and 
through  all  these  years  of  photographic  trials  and  tribula- 
tions, with  an  occasional  triumph  that  little  cabinet  has 
done  duty.  The  bath-room  in  which  it  was  first  put  up 
was  so  small,  that  there  was  not  room  enough  for  a  chair 
in  front  of  it ;  so  a  plank  was  placed  across  the  bath  tub  and 
used  as  a  seat. 

Later  I  got  into  larger  quarters,  with  plenty  of  room, 
and  that  little  cabinet  still  rests  against  the  west  end  of 
the  dark-room,  though  it  is  not  used  as  much  as  formerly. 
I  have  wearied  of  prolonged  sessions  in  a  closed  dark-room, 
and  this  weariness  set  me  thinking,  and  the  thinking 
brought  about  both  the  evolution  and  the  emancipation 
from  the  confines  of  a  closed  room  full  of  stifling  air.  In 
this  matter  of  photography,  each  man  is  a  law  unto  himself 
as  to  when  he  does  it,  where  he  does  it,  and  how  he  does 
it.  The  environment  of  each  of  us  generally  settles  that 
matter.    It  did  with  me. 

I  found  very  little  occasion  for  the  use  of  a  dark-room 
in  the  daytime,  and,  as  the  nights  down  here  are  dark 
enough  to  protect  the  photographic  plate  from  fog,  I  de- 
termined to  give  the  dark-room  a  rest,  and  convert  my  den, 
adjoining,  into  an  all-round  workroom — dark,  and  otherwise. 

I  procured  an  ordinary  kitchen   table,  of  yellow  pine. 


Hj^^^B  |«4*' ' 

flv  Vtt 

feS-^''  ...-^ 

^■.•ai 

Evolution  of  the  Dark  Room  from  a  Bath  Room     359 

3x4  feet,  which  I  padded  with  old  newspapers,  so  that  any- 
glass  belongings  that  might  accidentally  get  knocked  over 
would  not  break  because  of  the  paper  buffer  and  then 
covered  this  with  white  oilcloth  it  being  easily  wiped  off 
and  showing  the  least  dust  or  dirt.  This  rests  against  the 
west  wall  of  the  room,  and  fits  snugly  between  the  west 
windows  of  the  room.  The  Carbutt's  Lantern  occupies  the 
southwest  corner  of  this  table,  with  its  8x10  glass  front, 
facing  north.  The  iron  framework  of  the  corner  of  the 
lamp  thus  placed  throws  a  shadow  over  the  central  portion 
of  the  table,  where  the  developing  is  done.  Three  white 
porcelain  trays,  7x9,  occupy  the  center  of  the  table,  and  to 
the  right  the  operator  sits  at  the  table;  facing  west  are 
two  8x10  deep  orange  glass  trays.  On  the  northwest  corner 
sits  the  fixing  box.  Lined  against  the  wall  are  a  few 
bottles  of  developer  filled  to  the  brim,  and  with  corks  par- 
affined, though  the  practice  of  making  up  much  developer 
at  a  time  is  not  followed.  Usually  all  developers  are  made 
up  freshly,  used  right  away,  and  then  thrown  out.  Saving 
old  developers  I  have  found  to  be  poor  economy.  To  the 
right  of  the  center  of  the  table  are  four  graduates — one  8 
ozs.,  one  4  ozs.  one  minim.,  and  one  100  cc.  There  are  also 
glass  stirring  rods,  a  thermometer,  and  a  palette  knife.  The 
illuminant  used  is  a  16  c,  p.  incandescent  electric  light. 
This  is  fitted  into  a  wooden  base,  about  two  inches  thick 
and  four  inches  square,  so  that  the  glass  bulb  stands  up- 
right, and  the  lamp,  attached  to  an  ample  supply  of  wire, 
can  be  carried  to  any  point  of  the  room,  just  like  an  oil 
lamp.  When  developing,  this  lamp  is  placed  inside  the 
dark-room  lamp  but  when  not  so  used,  its  place  is  on  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  table,  where  along  the  edges  there 
aie  marked  measured  spaces,  from  6  to  18  inches  from 


360  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

the  center  of  the  light,  for  use  in  gaslight  paper  printing. 
From  a  pasteboard  tube,  such  as  is  used  in  mailing,  I  have 
made  a  very  handy  little  arrangement  for  printing  gaslight 
paper.  A  section  of  the  tube,  which  stands  about  4  to  6 
inches  above  the  top  of  the  electric  light  bulb,  was  cut, 
and  after  ascertaining  that  portion  of  the  tube  correspond- 
ing to  the  length  of  the  incandescent  bulb,  that  was  cut 
out  around  one-half  of  the  circumference  of  the  tube,  and 
the  opening  so  made  was  covered  with  four  thicknesses  of 
orange  tissue  paper.  When  printing  gaslight  paper,  this  is 
placed  over  the  light  while  loading  the  frames,  then  slipped 
off  and  the  exposure  made,  being  replaced  when  the  time 
of  exposure  has  expired,  and  allowed  to  remain  during  the 
development  of  the  paper.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  con- 
veniences on  the  table,  and  is  alike  useful  when  making 
lantern  slides.  So  far  I  have  found  it  perfectly  safe,  and 
neither  slides  nor  gaslight  paper  handled  under  it  have 
shown  any  signs  of  fog.  If  even  greater  precaution  is 
deemed  necessary,  the  tube  can  be  turned,  presenting  the 
pasteboard  side  to  that  portion  of  the  table  where  the  sen- 
sitive material  is  being  handled,  thus  reducing  the  light  to 
the  minimum. 

These  are  the  main  features  of  this  table,  which  has 
taken  the  place  of  an  enclosed  dark-room.  There  are  many 
other  things  on  the  table,  such  as  ruby  varnish  for  backing 
plates,  bromide  solution,  tissue  papers  of  three  colors,  mats, 
and  the  like;  for,  be  it  known,  that  this  table  is  used  for 
developing,  printing,  lantern-slide  making  as  well  as 
finishing,  passe  partout  work,  and  in  fact  all  the  various 
branches  of  photography  in  which  I  am  interested.  There 
is  no  running  water,  and  to  this  I  attribute  the  cleanliness 
that  necessarily  has  to  be  observed.    Underneath  the  table 


Evolution  of  the  Dark  Room  from  a  Bath  Room     361 

is  a  large  bucket  for  slops,  and  also  a  large  pitcher,  which 
holds  a  couple  gallons  of  water.  These  are  only  for  im- 
mediate use,  as,  after  fixing,  all  negatives  and  lantern  slides 
are  placed  in  washing  boxes  and  taken  to  the  kitchen  sink, 
where  they  are  thoroughly  washed.  The  same  method  is 
observed  with  prints.  The  front  half  of  the  table  is  amply 
protected  with  blotters  and  old  papers,  so  that  any  solutions 
accidentally  spilled  are  taken  up  before  they  reach  the 
white  oilcloth  underneath. 

When  any  process  is  completed,  all  dishes,  trays,  and 
utensils  used  are  at  once  thoroughly  cleaned  before  being 
put  up,  and  then  before  use  again  they  are  thoroughly 
rinsed  in  clean  water. 

On  this  table  there  is  a  place  for  everything,  and  I  can 
go  in  the  room  in  the  dark  and  put  my  hand  on  anything  I 
want.  To  any  one  other  than  the  user,  there  is  no  doubt 
it  would  appear  to  be  little  less  than  a  photographic  pande- 
monium. 

I  formerly  pursued  a  different  method.  In  another 
room  I  had  a  place  for  everything,  and  everything  in  its 
place;  but,  when  I  had  a  little  time  to  devote  to  photog- 
raphy, I  found  that  before  I  could  get  all  the  needful  things 
assembled  and  ready  to  start  that  my  time  had  flown,  and 
that  I  had  to  get  back  to  real  work.  Now,  I  go  right  into 
this  all-round  den  and  dark-room,  and  immediately  I  sit 
down  to  the  table,  everything  I  want  for  any  process, 
whether  it  be  developing  negatives,  or  printing  gaslight 
prints,  or  making  lantern  slides,  is  right  there  to  my 
hand,  and  all  I  have  to  do  is  to  pick  them  up  and  go  to 
work,  utilizing  my  time  in  doing  something,  rather  than 
in  getting  ready  to  prepare  to  begin  to  do  something. 

This  table,  which  I  have  tried  to  describe,  occupies 


362  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

about  one-half  of  the  west  side  of  the  room.  Half  of  the 
north  wall  is  taken  up  with  a  set  of  shelves,  which  hold 
part  of  my  photographic  library,  many  negatives,  chemicals, 
and  other  conveniences.  The  other  half  is  a  kind  of  back- 
ground carrier,  and  in  front  of  the  backgrounds  is  a  screen 
about  6x8,  which  is  used  both  as  a  reflector  and  to  show  lan- 
tern-slides at  home.  On  the  east  side  of  this  den  is  a  com- 
fortable lounge,  where,  undisturbed,  the  writer  often  takes 
a  short  afternoon  nap,  to  fit  him  for  his  all-night  vigil,  which 
usually  ends  about  3.30  A.  M.  On  the  south  side  is  a  fire- 
place, with  coal  grate,  and  alongside  of  the  grate  a  closet, 
where  unbound  magazines  and  other  things  are  stored.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  grate  is  the  door  opening  into  the  former 
dark  rooms. 

The  windows  of  this  den  are  hung  with  orange-colored 
shades,  so  that  if  it  is  desired  to  do  any  gaslight  paper  print- 
ing in  the  daytime,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  pull  down  the 
shades  and  close  the  door,  when  the  light  is  perfectly  safe, 
with  ample  illumination.  In  the  summer  months  the  win- 
dows are  never  closed,  and  as  the  room  has  a  north-western 
exposure,  there  is  almost  always  a  breeze  from  the  Gulf 
blowing  into  the  room,  so  there  is  no  lack  of  fresh  air.  If 
the  room  happens  to  get  uncomfortably  warm,  an  electric 
fan  in  one  corner  whirls  a  cooling  current  of  air  across 
the  work  table. 

In  this  arrangement,  which  has  been  gradually  evolved, 
I    now   find    convenience,    and,    greatest    of   all — comfort. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

My  Dark-Room. 
By  Ulysses  G.  Orr. 

OFTENTIMES  the  problem  of  fitting  up  a  dark-room 
in  the  average  home  is  troublesome  in  the  extreme. 
As  a  compromise,  the  bath-room,  some  closet,  or 
even  the  basement,  is  resorted  to  with  anything  but  sat- 
isfactory results,  not  only  to  the  amateur,  but  to  the  other 
occupants  of  the  house,  whose  caustic  remarks  about  mon- 
opolizing property  in  which  equal  rights  are  supposed  to 
be  vested  do  not  help  in  the  development  of  any  negative, 
to  say  nothing  of  a  balky,  under-exposed  one.  A  dark-room 
fitted  up  in  the  habitable  part  of  the  house  is  apt  to  be  so 
unsightly,  to  any  but  enthusiastic  eyes,  that  it  is  seldom 
attempted.  It  is  just  such  a  room  that  I  wish  to  describe, 
so  that  others  may  enjoy  the  luxuries  of  a  first-class  room, 
without  offending  the  aesthetic  sensibilities  of  the  less 
enthusiastic  members  of  the  household. 

Any  bed-room,  or  other  convenient  room,  the  larger 
the  better,  over  which  the  amateur  has  undisputed  sway, 
may  be  fitted  up  for  use,  and  still  be  presentable  for  other 
occasions.  The  room  I  use  is  a  dressing  room  opening  off 
my  bed-room.  It  is  six  and  one-half  feet  by  seven  and  one- 
half  feet,  and  would  be  better  larger,  as  the  air  would  not 
foul  so  quickly;  however,  judicious  ventilation  has  ac- 
complished much  to  keep  the  air  pure. 

(363) 


364 


Library  of  Practical  Photography. 


Illustration  No.  79  shows  the  arrangement  of  the 
room,  which  is  wainscoted  on  all  sides,  four  feet  high,  with 
%-inch  matched  ceiling,  and  this  ceiling  forms  the  doors  to 
the  cupboards,  which  extend  across  one  side  of  the  room 


I  JI8m.deep 


n 


aCAtC  OF  FEET. 


Illustration  No.  79. 

from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling.  The  washstand  is  the  ordinary- 
marble  stand,  with  a  15x9-inch  oval  bowl.  The  faucets  are 
connected  so  as  to  form  one  outlet,  which  permits  the  water 


My  Dark  Room.  365 

to  flow  cold,  hot,  or  mixed  to  any  desired  temperature.  The 
waste  is  a  metal  plug  at  the  bottom  of  the  bowl,  which 
operates  by  turning  a  lever  on  the  marble  slab  back  of  the 
bowl.  The  overflow  is  what  is  known  as  the  "Patent 
Overflow,"  the  openings  being  at  the  top  of  the  bowl  in 
the  back.  This  arrangement  leaves  an  entirely  free  re- 
ceptacle for  washing  prints  or  negatives,  and  the  suction 
does  not  draw  the  prints  down  over  the  outlet,  destroying 
them  and  overflowing  the  bowl,  as  is  the  case  when  the 
waste  is  at  the  bottom,  and  there  is  no  chain  to  injure 
prints  or  negatives. 

The  drop  table  forms  a  convenient  place  for  frames, 
holders,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  other  articles,  when  the  room 
is  being  used  as  a  dark-room,  and  it  may  be  dropped  out 
of  the  way  when  not  required.  It  also  supports  the  door 
to  cupboard  for  developers  and  light.  When  closed  it  appears 
as  ordinary  wainscot;  when  open  it  forms  the  most  con- 
venient of  places  for  developers,  hypo,  graduates,  etc.,  used 
during  development.  The  ruby  light  is  also  in  this  cup- 
board right  where  it  is  required  for  working  negatives  or 
bromide  papers,  and  consists  of  an  ordinary  wall  bracket 
gas  jet  in  the  room  adjoining  and  opposite  the  glass.  It  is 
controlled  by  a  cock  in  the  dark-room,  as  well  as  at  the 
fixture  in  the  other  room.  It  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be 
swung  away  from  the  ruby  glass  and  the  glass  covered  by 
a  small  hinged  door,  so  that  it  does  not  show  in  the  adjoin- 
ing room  when  the  door  is  closed.  The  light  can  be  turned 
up  or  down  without  leaving  the  chair  while  developing,  and, 
not  being  in  the  dark-room,  it  does  not  vitiate  the  air 
there. 

The  outside  window  to  the  dark-room  is  obscured  by 
simply  raising  the  ordinary  inside  sliding  blinds,  which  have 


366  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

no  revolving  slats,  but  solid  wood  panels  instead,  so  that 
the  operation  of  converting  the  room  into  a  dark-room  is 
simple  in  the  extreme.  A  dark-green  window  shade  is  placed 
between  the  window  and  sliding  blind,  and  the  brightest 
sunshine  has  no  effect  on  this  light-stopping  combination. 
There  is  a  tin  panel  in  the  lower  section  of  the  blind,  at 
the  proper  height,  opposite  the  drop  table,  in  which  a  tin 
slide  obscures  the  light  during  development.  When  en- 
larging, this  slide  is  removed,  the  shade  left  up,  and  the  cam- 
era, with  focusing  glass  removed,  attached  to  a  tin  frame  which 
slides  into  place  in  the  tin  panel,  when  the  room  is  the  finest 
kind  of  an  enlarging  room,  as  the  work  is  done  in  full  view, 
where  masking,  cloud  printing,  and  the  numerous  little 
dodges  so  useful  in  enlarging  can  be  done  freely,  the 
bromide  paper  being  tacked  to  a  board  which  can  be  ad- 
justed in  any  direction  to  get  any  degree  of  enlargement 
desired,  all  that  is  necessary  being  two  T-shaped  pieces  of 
wood  placed  top  down,  and  the  board  clamped  to  these 
at  the  desired  height,  then  one  of  the  supports  is  clamped 
to  the  table  at  the  proper  distance  from  the  camera.  The 
whole  operation  is  so  simple  that  "enlarging  is  a  pleasure. 
There  is  a  small  hole  in  the  blind,  covered  with  ruby  glass, 
at  a  convenient  height  for  looking  out.  Experience  has 
demonstrated  the  necessity  for  some  way  of  determining 
whether  or  not  the  sun  continues  bright  or  disappears  under 
a  cloud  during  the  exposure,  and  this  small  window  does 
the  work  nicely,  as  the  shadows  cast  by  the  sun  can  be  seen 
distinctly  through  the  ruby  glass. 

Over  the  washstand  is  a  cupboard  having  a  mir- 
ror for  a  door  and  a  swinging  mirror  each  side  of  the 
door.  This  is  used  when  printing  gaslight  papers.  The 
large  mirror  in  the  center,  which  forms  the  door,  is  swung 


My  Dark  Room.  367 

out  at  right-angles  and  obscures  the  table  from  the  light 
at  the  side  of  the  door  to  the  dark-room,  when  all  of  the 
operations  of  filling  printing  frames,  developing  and  fixing, 
can  be  done  with  gas  turned  up  full.  The  swinging  mirror, 
at  the  left,  is  swung  around  in  front  of  the  cupboard  and 
the  printing  frames  hung  to  hooks  on  the  back,  the  swing- 
ing gas  bracket  being  adjusted  to  any  desired  distance 
from  the  frame. 

At  the  rear  of  the  room  are  a  number  of  cupboards, 
so  dear  to  the  heart  of  every  amateur,  in  which  can  be 
stored  all  requisite  paraphernalia,  negatives,  etc.,  so  that 
anything  can  be  found  in  the  dark  if  necessary.  The  ar- 
rangement of  these  cupboards  would  warrant  a  separate 
article  but  for  the  fact  that  each  amateur  has  decided  notions 
of  his  own  as  to  filing  negatives,  keeping  his  stock  and  chemi- 
cals, the  arrangement  of  drying  closet,  dark  closet,  tray 
racks,  etc. 

The  room  is  ventilated  in  two  places.  Over  the  door, 
in  the  ceiling,  is  an  opening  from  which  an  ordinary  6-inch 
stove  pipe  runs  up  and  out  of  the  roof  with  a  ventilating 
cap  on  top.  The  pipe  does  not  run  straight  up,  but  has  an 
elbow  to  offset  the  pipe,  and  thus  prevent  direct  rays  from 
reaching  the  room.  The  opening  at  ceiling  has  a  cover  which 
can  be  drawn  down  to  open  ventilator,  and  is  wide  enough 
to  prevent  direct  light  rays  from  entering  the  room.  Near 
the  window  is  a  small  enclosed  gas  stove,  which  heats  and 
ventilates  in  winter;  the  pipe  acting  as  a  vent-flue  helps 
to  ventilate  in  summer.  There  are  a  number  of  holes  in 
the  bottom  of  the  door  to  admit  a  supply  of  fresh  air. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  go  into  a  dark-room  of  this  kind,  know- 
ing that  you  will  not  be  disturbed,  and  that  you  have  every- 
thing you  will  require  right  at  hand. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
How  the  Studies  Illustrating  This  Volume  Were  Made. 

Frontispiece.  Title,  "Valambrosa,"  made  in  Florence, 
Italy,  by  Wm.  H.  Phillips,  of  Liverpool,  Ohio.  This  pic- 
ture was  produced  with  a  No.  3  Folding  Pocket  Kodak; 
the  lens  used  was  a  Goerz  5-inch  focus.  Series  III;  the  neg- 
ative was  made  on  a  non-curling  film,  developed  with  pyro- 
soda  developer.  The  film  was  enlarged  to  14x17.  Used 
royal  bromide,  printed  with  a  white  margin.  The  bromide 
was  developed  with  rodinal  strong  solution— one  part 
rodinal,  6  parts  water.  The  print  was  mounted  on  a  com- 
bination mount  first  chocolate  narrow  border  with  g^ay 
support. 

Study  No.  1.  Title,  "Street  Performance,"  by  Grace 
E,  Mounts,  of  Morrow,  Ohio.  Picture  was  made  about 
noon,  in  the  month  of  September,  with  a  slightly  hazy 
sky.  Lens  used  was  Rectilinear,  furnished  with  cartridge 
kodak;  stop  used,  f-8.  Negative  was  made  on  an  Eastman 
film;  exposure,  instantaneous.  Film  was  developed  in  the 
regular  way,  without  any  after  manipulation.  Print  was 
made  on  Velox.    (See  Page  25). 

Study  No.  3.  Title,  "At  the  Seashore,"  by  John  S. 
Neary,  of  Trenton,  N.  J.  This  picture  was  made  with  an 
instantaneous  pocket  kodak,  3^x4^.  The  exposure  was 
made  at  11  A.  M.,  on  a  bright  summer  day.  Film  was  de- 
veloped with  pyro-soda  developer,  and  printed  on  velvet 

(369) 


370  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

velox;  mounted  on  a  combination  mount;  first  section 
neutral  gray  tint,  second  section,  gray  black.  (See  Page  111). 

Study  No.  4.  Title,  "Home,  Sweet  Home,"  by  Grace 
E.  Mounts,  of  Morrow,  Ohio.  This  picture  was  made  at 
4 :30  P.  M.,  in  the  month  of  June,  with  a  medium  light,  but 
not  strong  sunlight.  The  lens  used  was  a  Goerz  Dagor, 
Series  HI,  6^-inch  focus;  stop  used.  No.  8.  Negative  was 
made  on  an  Eastman  film,  with  a  No.  4  Eastman  cartridge 
kodak  camera.  Exposure  given,  ^.  second.  Negative  was 
developed  in  the  regular  way,  using  pyro-soda  developer, 
without  any  alteration.  The  print  was  made  on  velvet 
velox.    (See  Page  125). 

Study  No.  5.  Title,  "The  After  Glow,"  by  H.  H.  Boyce, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.  This  picture  was  made  at  the  close  of  a  fine 
summer  day,  at  8  P.  M.  The  lens  used  was  a  Century 
No.  3;  focal  length,  6  inches;  stop  used,  wide  open;  ex- 
posure given,  2  seconds ;  plate  used,  Seed  Regular  26  X ;  de- 
veloped with  metol-hydroquinon  with  no  after  manipula- 
tion ;  printing  process,  bromide  enlargement  to  10x12.  (See 
Page  135). 

Study  No.  7.  Title,  "The  Effort,"  by  C.  F.  Clark,  of 
Springfield,  Mass.  Was  hung  in  the  Fourth  American  Salon. 
This  picture  was  made  in  the  month  of  August;  time  of 
day,  10  A.  M.,  with  very  bright  sunlight.  The  lens  used 
was  a  Cook  lens;  focal  length,  13  inches;  worked  at  stop 
f-8.  Focus  was  made  on  the  boy  in  the  foreground;  ex- 
posure given,  ^2  second;  plate  used,  Orthonon;  developer, 
ortol,  and  with  no  doctoring  of  the  negative.    (See  Page  219) . 

Study  No.  8.  Title,  "In  the  Gloaming,"  by  Geo.  H. 
Scheer,  M.  D.,  Sheboygan,  Wis.  Was  hung  in  the  Fourth 
American  Salon.  When  making  this  picture,  the  weather 
was  clear,  but  the  heavens  were  slightly  cloudy.    Exposure 


How  Studies  Were  Produced  371 

was  made  late  in  the  afternoon,  early  in  the  month  of  June. 
Lens  used,  Rapid  Rectilinear,  worked  wide  open;  plate  used, 
was  an  Orthonon ;  exposure  given,  1  second,  with  a  Burke 
&  James  Ideal  Ray  Filter;  plate  was  developed  by  tank 
development,  with  25  minute  formula  pyro-soda.  The  neg- 
ative was  unaltered,  but  the  print  from  which  this  repro- 
duction was  made,  was  an  enlargement  on  royal  bromide, 
slightly  shaded  to  give  upper  portions  a  slightly  longer  ex- 
posure, and  redeveloped  in  sodium  sulphide,  after  only  par- 
tially bleaching  in  weak  solution  of  potassium  bromide  and 
ferricyanide.     (See  Page  235). 

Study  No.  9.  Title,  "Wading  the  Stream,"  by  John 
Chislett,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Exposure  was  made  on  a 
bright  August  day,  about  5  P.  M.,  with  a  Smith  lens,  full 
opening.  The  plate  used  was  a  Cramer  instantaneous  iso- 
chromatic.  A  cap  exposure  was  made,  about  ^  second; 
the  negative  was  developed  in  ortol,  and  there  was  no 
altering  of  the  negative  after  development.  Print  was 
made  on  platinum  paper,  with  the  foreground  slightly  dark- 
ened in  the  printing,  and  the  high-lights  and  sky  worked  in 
on  the  back  of  the  negative.     (See  Page  249). 

Study  No.  10.  Title,  "A  Winter  Stream,"  by  R.  E. 
Weeks,  Chicago,  111.  Hung  in  the  Third  American  Salon. 
This  picture  was  made  in  the  month  of  March,  at  10  A.  M., 
with  weather  conditions  quite  bright.  The  lens  used  was  a 
Ross  Homocentric,  3^x4^ ;  focal  length,  5^  inches ;  stop 
used,  wide  open;  exposure  g^ven,  1-5  second,  through 
Burke  &  James  Isochrome  Filter;  plate  used,  film  pack 
3^x4^ ;  developed  in  rodinal-hydroquinon.  The  diffused 
focus  was  obtained  by  focusing  on  foreground.  The  print- 
ing process  was  an  11x14  enlargement  on  Eastman  platinoid 
bromide,  and  the  picture  was  mounted  on  a  cream  margin 


372  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

sepia  mount,  backed   with  a  carbon  black  mount.     (See 
Page  297). 

Study  No.  11.  Title,  "January  Frost,"  by  Sweet  Broth- 
ers, Minneapolis,  Minn.  Hung  in  the  Fifty-Second  Annual 
Exhibition  of  the  Royal  Photographic  Society  of  Great 
Britain.  This  picture  was  made  under  fleecy  sunlight  in 
January,  at  4  P.  M. ;  lens  used  was  Zeiss,  stopped  at  f/128  ; 
plate  used.  Seed  Double-coated  Orthonon;  exposure  given, 
2  seconds;  developed  with  eikonogen-hydroquinon,  with 
no  after  treatment.  Plate  was  made  on  velox,  mounted  on 
Scotch  gray  card.     (See  Page  339). 


GENERAL    INDEX. 

VOLUME  I. 


Accessories,    Selection   of 639 

Acid  Fixing  Bath,  Formula  for 204,  205 

Adjustable  Tripod,  Illustration  of Page    71 

Advantage  of  Reducing  Thick  Negatives — Half  a  Plate  Re- 
duced— Illustration  of  Page  179 

After-Fixing  Bath— Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper 396 

"After  Glow,  The,"  Study  No.  5,  by  Boyce Page  135 

Albumenized  Paper,  Origin  of 24 

Alkali.   General   Notes  on 278 

Alkali  in  the  Developer,  Function  of 291 

Alum  Hardening  Bath 205 

Anastigmat  Lens    51 

Angle  of  Light,  Proper,  Illustration  of  Effect  of Page    84 

Appearance  of  Negatives  with  Different  Exposures 313-325 

Applying  Paste  to  Back  of  Print,  Illustration  of Page  244 

Architectural  and  Landscape  Photography  for  Beginners 647-662 

Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards 504-509 

Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards — Fixing 506 

Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards — Printing 504 

Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards— Salt  Bath 507 

Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards,  To  Flatten 509 

Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards — Washing 505 

Aristo   Gold  Paper 491-503 

Aristo  Gold  Paper— Printing 491 

Aristo  Gold  Paper — Purple  Tones 493 

Aristo  Gold  Paper — Quality  of  Negative 494 

Aristo  Gold  Paper— Sepia  Tones 492 

Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards 498^03 

Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards— Hypo  Bath 601 

Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards— Printing 499 

(373^ 


374  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards— Purple  Tones 503 

Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards— Washing 500,503 

Aristo    Self-Toning   Paper 510-531 

Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper— Hypo  Bath 518,519 

Aristo   Self-Toning   Paper— Notes,   Important 520-530 

Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper — Practice  Work 531 

Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper — Printing 513 

Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper— Salt  Bath 514-517 

Artificial  Light  for  Printing  Developing  Papers 443 

"At  the  Sea  Shore,"  Study  No.  3,  by  Neary Page  HI 

Automatic  Developing  Tank,  Ingento 336-338 

Automatic  Developing  Tanks,  Illustrations  of  Ingento.  ..Page  193 

Automatic  Shutter   66 

Automatic  Shutter,  Illustration  of Page  53 

Back,    Reversible    67 

Bag,  Ingento   Changing 339 

Bag,  Ingento  Changing,  Illustration  of Page  193 

Bath-room,  Evolution  of  the  Dark-room  from  a Pages  355-362 

Beginner,  Suggestions  for  the 293 

Beginner's  Difficulties   132-165 

Back  of  Negative  White  When  Removed  from  Fix- 
ing   Bath    159 

Cannot  Secure  a  Sharp  Image 134 

Chemicals  Will  Not  Dissolve 147 

Distinguishing    Exposed    and     Unexposed      Plates 

When   Mixed    145 

Distortion  of  Perpendicular  Lines  of  the  Picture 136 

Edges  of  Negative  Fogged 154 

End  or  Corner  of  Negative  Fogged 155 

Extreme  Distance  Not  Sharp 138 

Film  Side  of  the  Plate,  Unable  to  Tell  Which  is 144 

Finder,  Unable  to  see  the  Image  in  the 132 

Fixed,  Judging  When  a  Plate  is 153 

Fixing  Bath  Discolors  After  Slight  Use 161 

Fogged,  Edges  of  Negative 154 

Fogged,  End  or  Corner  of  Negative 155 

Fogged,  Shadows   156 

Foreground   Not   Sharp 139 

Foreground,  Too  Much 141 

Ground-glass,  Unable  to  See  Image  on  the 133 

Holder,  Plates  Sticking  in  the 143 

Image,  Cannot  Secure  a  Sharp 134 

Image    Flashes    up    and    Quickly    Darkens    When 

Flowed  With  Developer 149 


General  Index,  375 


Image  in  the  Finder,  Unable  to  See 132 

Image  Not  Sharp  When  the  Camera  is  Used  as  a 
Hand  Camera  and  Set  at  the  Correct  Distance 

Indicated  by  the  Scale 135 

Image  on  the  Ground-glass,  Unable  to  See 133 

Image  Very  Dim  and  Hazy  on  Ground-glass 137 

Judging  Density    151 

Judging  When  a  Plate  is  Fixed 153 

Large  Black  Spot  in  Center  of  Plate 158 

Large  Light  Spots  and  Streaks  on  Negative 157 

Negative  Will  Not  Fix 160 

Negatives  Appear  Greasy  When  Dry 164 

Negatives  Appear  Gritty  When  Dry 165 

Negatives   Dry   Slowly 163 

No  Image  Appears  Upon  Continued  Development 148 

Obtaining  Sufficient  Angle  of  View  in  Narrow  Streets..  140 

Pin-Holes   and   Spots 152 

Plates  Sticking  in  the  Holder 143 

Ruby   Light,   Weak 146 

Shadows   Fogged    156 

Sky,  Too  Much  142 

Softening  of  Film  in  Wash  Water 162 

Spot  in  Center  of  Plate,  Large  Black 158 

Spots   and   Pin-holes 152 

Spots  and  Streaks  on  Negative,  Large  Light 157 

Too   Much   Foreground 141 

Too  Much   Sky 142 

Unable  to  See  Image  in  the  Finder 132 

Unable  to  See  Image  on  the  Ground-glass 133 

Unable  to  Tell  Which  is  the  Film  Side  of  the  Plate 144 

Weak  Ruby  Light   146 

When  to  Stop   Development 150 

Bellows,  Extending  the,  for  Focusing 72 

Blistering,  Illustration  of  EflFect  of Page  84 

Blue    Print    Paper 355-365 

Blue  Print  Paper— Depth  of  Printing 356 

Blue   Print  Paper — Developing 357 

Blue   Print   Paper — Drying 358 

Blue  Print  Paper— Practice  Work 364,365 

Blue   Print  Paper— Toning 359 

Blue  Prints,  Converting,  Into  Brown  Prints 361-363 

Blue    Prints — Sensitizing    366-374 

Blue  Prints,  Sensitizing  Solution,  Formula  for 367-369 

Box  Camera,  Illustration  of Page  46 


376  Library  of  Practical  Photography, 

Box    Cameras    42 

Box  Cameras  Require  No  Focusing,  Fixed  Focus 81 

Box  of  Plates,  Opening 102 

Brands  of  Developing  Papers 431 

Bringing  Paste   Side   of  Print  Into   Contact  With   Mount, 

Illustration    of    Page  244 

Bromide    Enlarging — Development    '. 573 

Bromide   Enlarging,   Elementary 557-593 

Bromide    Enlarging — Focusing    566 

Bromide    Enlarging — Fog    587 

Bromide    Enlarging — Gray    Prints 590 

Bromide   Enlarging — Greenish  Tones 591 

Bromide  Enlarging — Judging  the  Face  Side  of  Paper 586 

Bromide  Enlarging — Judging  When  Prints  Are  Fixed 592 

Bromide   Enlarging — Making  the   Exposure 569-572 

Bromide  Enlarging — Mealy,  Flat  Prints 588 

Bromide  Enlarging — Papers  to  Use 584 

Bromide  Enlarging — Placing  the  Camera  for  the  Exposure.  .567,  568 

Bromide  Enlarging — Testing  the  Exposure 571,572 

Bromide    Enlarging — Weak    Prints 589 

Bromide  of  Potassium  as  a  Restrainer 289 

Bromide  Solution,  Preparing  a 302 

Brownie   Enlarging  Camera 561 

Brownie  Enlarging  Cameras,  Illustrations  of Page  281 

Building  Improperly  Photographed,   Illustration  of Page     83 

Building  Properly  Photographed,  Illustration  of  Light Page     83 

Calotype,  Origin  of 20 

Camera,  Fixed  Focus  Folding 70 

Camera,    Focusing   the 55,  62 

Camera,  Holding  the  Hand 635 

Camera — How    to    Operate 34-104 

Camera,  How  to  Test 625 

Camera,  Illustration  of  Box Page  46 

Camera,  Illustration  of  Eastman's  Kodak  Enlarging Page  281 

Camera,  Illustration  of  Film  Plate Page     46 

Camera,  Illustration  of  Folding Page     46 

Camera    Obscura    15 

Camera,  Practical  Use  of  the 647-662 

Cameras,    Best    Hand 623 

Cameras,   Box    42 

Cameras,   Enlarging    562-564 

Cameras,    Film    45 

Cameras,  Film-Plate   46 

Cameras,  Folding  44 


General  Index,  377 

Cameras,  General  Description  of 42-48 

Cameras,  Hand,  Supplementary  Lenses  for 604-621 

Cameras,  Illustrations  of  Brownie  Enlarging Page  281 

Cameras,  Magazine   43 

Cameras,   Reflex   48 

Cameras,  View    47 

Capacity,  Liquid,  of  Ingento  Tanks 340 

Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards,  Aristo 504-509 

Care  of  Wet  Films 208 

Cartridges,   Flash    687 

Changing  Bag,   Ingento 339 

Changing  Bag,  Ingento,  Illustration  of Page  193 

Chemicals  for  Developer,  Preparing 266-287 

Choice  of  Subjects 636-638 

Church,  Illustration  of  Page  323 

Clearing  Bath — Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper 487 

Clearing   Solution — Kallitype    Process 550 

Cloth— Blue   Print   Sensitizing 366-374 

Collodion  Plate,  Origin  of  Wet 25 

Color  and  Tone  of  Mount 601 

Combined  Bath,  Definition  of 376 

Combined  Bath,  Formula  for  Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper 385-387 

Composition,  Example  of  Faulty Page  331 

Contrast  in  Snow  Pictures,  Securing 666-673 

Convenient  Dark-room,  Floor  Plan  of Page  364 

Converting  Blue  Prints  Into  Brown  Prints 361-363 

Copying  and  Enlarging  Lens,  Supplementary 608,609 

Correcting  the  Focusing  Scale 78 

Correctly  Exposed  and  Developed  Negative,  Print  from  a. Page  180 

Corresponding  Stop  Values 65 

Cut  Film  Developing  Tank,  Premo 258-262 

Cut  Film  or  Kodoid  Plates 211, 212 

Cutting   Films 202 

Daguerreotype,   Origin  of 17, 18 

Dark  Building  Improperly  Photographed,  Illustration  of  a. Page  83 

Dark-room     95-98 

Dark-room,  Floor  Plan  of  Convenient Page  364 

Dark-room  from  a  Bath-room,  Evolution  of  the Pages  355-362 

Dark-room — Illustration  of  Floor  Plan Page  364 

Dark-room,  Illustration  of  Temporary Page     72 

Dark-room  Lamp,  Illustration  of Page    72 

Dark-room,  My Page  363 

Dark-room  Sink,  Illustration  of  an  Inexpensive Page    75 

Daylight  Enlarger,  Illustration  of  Ingento Page  281 


378  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Daylight  Enlarger,  Illustration  of  Ingento  Folding Page  281 

Daylight  Enlarging  Camera,  Ingento 562 

Daylight  Enlarging  Camera,  Ingento  Folding 563 

Daylight    Loading    Films 173-177 

Defective  Negatives  and  Their  Cause 129-131 

Definition  of  a  Negative 123 

Depth    of    Focus 59 

Depth  of  Printing  Blue  Prints 356 

Description  of  Cameras,  General 42-48 

Determining    Exposure    643-646 

Developed,   Correctly,  Over-exposed  Negative,   Illustration 

of     Page  183 

Developed?     When  is  a  Plate 283-287 

Developer,  Flowing,  on  Plate 288 

Developer,    Temperature    of 292 

Developers  for  Kodak  Film  Tank 263 

Developers  for  Tank  Developing 341-344 

Developing     280,  347 

Developing  at  Table,  Illustration  of Page  243 

Developing  Blue  Prints 357 

Developing — Developing   Papers    457-459 

Developing — Eastman  Plate  Tank — Illustration  of Page  190 

Developing  Film  Pack  Negatives 223-226 

Developing   Notes    351 

Developing  or  "Gaslight"  Papers — Regular  Grades 429-468 

Developing    Outfit    100, 101 

Developing  Papers,  Artificial  Light  for  Printing 443 

Developing  Papers,  Brands  of 431 

Developing   Papers — Developing    457-459 

Developing  Papers,  Developing  Powders  for 434-436 

Developing  Papers — Difficulties   469-479 

Flat   Prints    478 

Gray   Whites    471 

Green  Tones    470 

Irregular  Stains  or  Blotches 472 

Prints  Refused  to  Develop   469 

Prints    Too    Black 476 

Prints  Too  Dark  After  Fixing 479 

Prints  Too  Light 475 

Stains  All  Over  the  Print 473 

Stains  or  Blotches,  Irregular 472 

Weak    Prints    477 

Whites    Gray    471 

Whites   Yellow    474 


General  Index.  379 

Developing  Papers — Exposure  451-454 

Developing   Papers — Exposure,   Recording 455,456 

Developing    Papers — Fixing    460 

Developing  Papers,  Fixing  Bath  for 437 

Developing  Papers — Fixing  Bath,  Handling  Prints  in  the. .  .461-464 

Developing  Papers — Loading  the  Printing  Frame 444-447 

Developing   Papers — Mounting    468 

Developing   Papers,    Printing 438-440 

Developing  Papers,  Printing  and  Developing  Outfit  for 441,442 

Developing    Papers — Restrainer    459 

Developing  Papers — Trimming   467 

Developing  Papers — Washing    465,  466 

Developing  Powders  for  Developing  Papers 434-436 

Developing  Roll  Film  in  Tray,  Illustration  of Page  121 

Developing — Snow   Photography    675 

Developing   Solutions    116, 117 

Developing  Solutions  for  Kallitype  Process 545 

Developing  Tank,  Filling  the 345,  346 

Developing  Tank,  Ingento  Automatic 336-338 

Developing  Tank,  Premo  Cut  Film 258-262 

Developing  Tanks,  Illustrations  of  Ingento  Automatic Page  193 

Developing  Under-exposures   282 

Developing  With  Pyro 266-287 

Development    119-122 

Development — Bromide  Enlarging  573 

Development,   Elementary  Tank 326-351 

Development,  Film   198-201 

Development — Flashlight   Photography    696 

Development,  General  Hints  on 288-304 

Development,   Judging    124 

Development — Kallitype    Process    544-549 

Development,   Over    303,  304 

Development,  Restraining   281 

Development,  Under   300 

Diaphragm,   Iris    58 

Diaphragm   Openings,   Regulating 63 

Diaphragm  Values,   Corresponding 65 

Diaphragms   or   Stops 57-61 

Diaphragms,  Use   of 60,  61 

Difficulties,  Beginners'  (See  Beginners'  Difficulties) 132-165 

Difficulties — Developing  Papers  (See  Developing  Papers — 

Difficulties)     469-479 

Difficulties — Ferrotyping  Prints  (See  Ferrotyping  Prints — 

Difficulties)    424.428 


380  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Difficulties — Kodaks  and  Films   (See  Kodaks  and  Films — 

Difficulties)     227-243 

Difficulties — Printing  and  Toning  (See  Printing  and  Ton- 
ing—Difficulties)      406-423 

Double    Mounting    602 

Double   Swing    87 

Double-Two    Films    178,179 

Double  Valve  Shutter,  Illustration  of Page    53 

Double   Valve    Shutters 55 

Drying    126 

Drying  Blue  Prints 358 

Drying  Films 209 

Drying   Negatives    279, 294,  295 

Dry  Plate,  Origin  of 26 

Duplicator 615-617 

Dusting  Plate  in  Printing  Frame,  Illustration  of Page  203 

Eastman  Film  Tank,  Illustration  of Page  147 

Eastman  Kodak  Enlarging  Camera,  Illustration  of Page  281 

Eastman   Plate  Tank 330-335 

Eastman  Plate  Tank — Developing — Illustration  of Page  190 

Eastman  Plate  Tank — Loading  Block — Illustration  of.... Page  189 

Eastman  Plate  Tank — Loading — Illustration  of Page  189 

Eastman  Plate  Tank — Lowering  Rack  Into  Solution — Illus- 
tration of  Page  190 

Eastman  Plate  Tank — Removing  Plates  from  Rack — Illus- 
tration   of Page  192 

Eastman    Plate    Tank — Separating    Plates    After    Removal 

from  Rack — Illustration  of Page  192 

Eastman  W.  D.  Paper 480 

Effect  of  Moisture  on  Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper 481-483 

Effect  of  Proper  Angle  of  Light,  Illustration  of Page     84 

"Effort,  The,"  Study  No,  7,  by  Clark Page  219 

Elementary  Bromide  Enlarging 557-593 

Elementary  Flashlight   Photography 677-699 

Elementary  Flashlight  Photography— Practice  Work 697-699 

Elementary    Snow    Photography 663-676 

Elementary  Tank  Development 326-351 

Enlargement,  Making  the 565 

Enlarger,  Illustration  of  Ingento  Daylight Page  281 

Enlarger,  Illustration  of  Ingento  Folding  Daylight Page  281 

Enlarging  and  Copying  Lens,  Supplementary 608,609 

Enlarging   Camera,   Brownie 561 

Enlarging  Camera,  Illustration  of  Eastman's  Kodak Page  281 

Enlarging  Camera,  Ingento  Daylight 562 


General  Index.  381 

Enlarging  Camera,  Ingento  Folding  Daylight 563 

Enlarging   Camera,   Kodak 564 

Enlarging  Cameras,  Illustrations  of  Brownie Page  281 

Enlarging,   Elementary  Bromide 557-593 

"Eventide,"  Study  No.  2,  by  Brandt Page  57 

Evolution  of  the  Dark-room  from  a  Bath-room Pages  355-362 

Example  of  Faulty  Composition Page  331 

Example  of  Fogging— Failure  to  Wind  Film  Tightly Page  131 

Exposure,  Determining   , 643-646 

Exposure — Developing  Papers   451-454 

Exposure  for  Hand  Camera  Work 632-634 

Exposure,  Making  the — Bromide  Enlarging 569-572 

Exposure  Meters   640-642 

Exposure,   Normal    314-318 

Exposure,   Over    301,  319-322 

Exposure,  Testing  the — Bromide  Enlarging 571,  572 

Exposure,  Under 298,  299,  323-325 

Exposures,  Appearance  of  Negatives  With  Different 313-325 

Exposures,    Exterior    192 

Exposures,    Instantaneous    180-183 

Exposures,    Interior 184-191 

Exposures,   Recording — Developing   Papers 455,456 

Exposures,    Timing    ^ 55 

Exposures,   Under-,    Developing 282 

Exterior  Exposures   192 

Failure  to  Wind  Film  Tightly — Example  of  Fogging Page  131 

Ferro-Prussiate  Sensitizing   366-374 

Ferrotyping   Prints — Difficulties    424-428 

Dull  Spots  on  Prints  When  Ferrotyped 425 

Ferrotyped  Prints  Lose  Gloss  Upon  Mounting 428 

Pebble-like  Spots  on  Print  When  Ferrotyped 426 

Perfect  Contact  Between  Print  and  Ferrotype  Plate... 427 

Sticking  of  Prints  to  Ferrotype  Plates 424 

Filling  the  Developing  Tank 345,  346 

Film   Cameras    45 

Film   Development    198-201 

Film  Kodak,   Illustration  of  Pocket Page  46 

Film   Pack    213-226 

Film  Pack,  Illustration  of Page  131 

Film  Pack  Negatives,   Developing 223-226 

Film  Pack,  Removing  Films  from 222 

Film  Plate  Camera,  Illustration  of Page  46 

Film  Plate  Cameras    46 

Film,  Removing,  from  Kodak 197 


382  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Film  Roll,  Illustration  of Page  72 

Film  Tank,  Developers  for  Kodak 263 

Film  Tank,  Eastman,  Illustration  of Page  147 

Film  Tank,  Kodak   253-257 

Film  Tank,  Illustration  of  Kodak  Roll Page  147 

Film  Tank,  Illustration  of  Premo Page  147 

Film  Trough,  Illustration  of  Ingento Page  122 

Films  and   Kodaks    166-226 

Films,   Care   of   Wet 208 

Films,  Cut,  Kodoid  Plates  or 211,212 

Films,  Cutting   202 

Films,   Daylight   Loading    173-177 

Films,   Double-Two    178, 179 

Films,    Drying    209 

Films,   Non-curling   169-172 

Films,  Rinsing   203 

Films,  Tank  Developing  for 244-265 

Films  vs.  Plates   631 

Films,  Washing   206,  207 

Filter,  Ideal  Ray   612-614 

Finders     79-81,  630 

Fixed  Focus   69 

Fixed  Focus  Box  Cameras  Require  no  Focusing 81 

Fixed  Focus  Folding  Camera 70 

Fixing    125, 264,  265 

Fixing  Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards 506 

Fixing  Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards 501 

Fixing  Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper 518,  519 

Fixing  Bath  277,  349 

Fixing  Bath  for  Developing  Papers 437 

Fixing  Bath,  Handling  Prints  in  the — Developing  Papers. .  .461-464 

Fixing — Developing   Papers    460 

Fixing  Solution   118 

Fixing  Solution  for  Kallitype  Process 551 

Flash  Cartridges   687 

Flash   Lamp    688 

Flashlight   Exposures,  Table  of 690 

Flashlight,  Groups  by  692 

Flashlight   Photography — Development    969 

Flashlight  Photography,  Elementary  677-699 

Flashlight  Photography— Practice  Work 697-699 

Flashlight,  Placing  the  684 

Flashlight  Portraits  691 

Flash  Powder  680-683 


General  Index.  383 

Flash  Powder,  Preparing  the 682,  683 

Flash  Sheets   685,  686 

Flattening  Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards 509 

Floor  Plan — Dark-room,  Illustration  of Page  364 

Flowing  Developer  on  Plate 288 

Focus,  Depth  of 59 

Focus,   Fixed    69 

Focus,  How  to  Test  the 624 

Focus,  Testing  the   75-77 

Focus,  Universal  71 

Focusing    68 

Focusing — Bromide  Enlarging  566 

Focusing,   Extending  the  Bellows  for 72 

Focusing,   Ground-glass    74 

Focusing,  Scale   73 

Focusing  Scale,  Correcting  the 78 

Focusing  the  Camera   55,  62 

Fogging,  Example  of — Failure  to  Wind  Film  Tightly. ..  .Page  131 

Fogging  the  Plate,  Illustration  Showing  the  Result  of Page  93 

Folding  Camera,  Illustration  of Page  46 

Folding   Cameras    44 

Folding  Daylight  Enlarger,  Illustration  of  Ingento Page  281 

Folding  Daylight  Enlarging  Camera,  Ingento 563 

Formula  for  Acid  Fixing  Bath 204, 205 

Formula  for  Blue  Print  Sensitizing  Solution 367-369 

Formula  for  Developing  With  Pyrogallic  Acid 271-276 

Formula,  How  to  Compound  a 270 

Frame,  Illustration  of  Printing Page  203 

Front,  Rising   629 

Front,  Rising,  Falling  and  Sliding 82,  83 

f  System  of  Stops 64-66 

Gaslight  Papers— Regular  Grades  429-468 

Gelatin   Printing-out  Paper 375-405 

Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper — After- Fixing  Bath 396 

Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper — Combined  Bath  Formula 385-387 

Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper — Mounting 400-405 

Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper,  Printing  and  Toning 375 

Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper,  Printing  on 376-380 

Gelatin  Printing-out    Paper — Squeegeeing 398,   399 

Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper — Temperature  of  Toning  Bath 382 

Gelatin-Printing-out   Paper — Toning    381-392 

Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper — Washing   397 

General  Description  of  Cameras 42-48 

General  Hints  on  Development 288-304 


384  Libraryf  of  Practical  Photography. 

"Gloaming,  In  the,"  Study  No.  8,  by  Scheer Page  235 

Glossy  Prints,  Mounting  400-405 

Gold  Paper,  Aristo   491-503 

Ground-glass  Focusing  74 

Groups  by  Flashlight   692 

Hand  Camera,  Holding  the 635 

Hand  Camera,  Lens  for 626 

Hand  Camera  Work,  Exposure  for 632-634 

Hand  Camera  Work,  Synopsis  of 622-646 

Hand  Cameras,  Best  623 

Hand  Cameras,  Supplementary  Lenses  for 604-621 

Hardening   Bath,  Alum 205 

Hints  on  Development,  General 288-304 

History  of  Photography  1-33 

Holder,  Loading  the  Plate 103,  104 

Holding  the  Hand  Camera 635 

"Home  Sweet  Home,"  Study  No.  4,  by  Grace  E.  Mounts. .  .Page  125 
Horizon  Line  Emphasizing  Size  of  Building  (School  House), 

Illustration  of  Low   Page  323 

Horizontal  Swing  86 

How  the  Studies  Were  Made Pages  369-372 

How  to  Compound  a  Formula 270 

How  to  Operate  the  Camera 34-104 

How  to  Proceed   105-131 

How  to  Test  Camera  625 

How  to  Test  the  Focus 624 

How  to  Trim  597 

Hydrometer   267-269 

Hydrometer,   Illustration  of   Page  156 

Ideal  Photo  Optical  Outfit 605-617 

Ideal  Photo  Optical  Outfit,  Illustration  of Page  303 

Ideal  Ray  Filter 612-614 

Idea,  Photograph  Which  Lacks  the  Expression  of  an,  Illus- 
tration of   Page  327 

Illuminating  the  Negative,  Illustration  of Page  285 

Importance  of  Position  in  Snap-shots,  Illustration  of Page  331 

Inexpensive  Dark-room  Sink,  Illustration  of  an Page  75 

Ingento  Automatic  Developing  Tank 336-338 

Ingento  Automatic  Developing  Tanks,  Illustrations  of Page  193 

Ingento  Changing  Bag  339 

Ingento  Changing  Bag,  Illustration  of Page  193 

Ingento  Daylight  Enlarger,  Illustration  of Page  281 

Ingento  Daylight  Enlarging  Camera 562 

Ingento  Film  Trough,  Illustration  of Page  122 


General  Index,  385 

Ingento  Folding  Daylight  Enlarger,  Illustration  of Page  281 

Ingento  Folding  Daylight  Enlarging  Camera 563 

Inserting  Slide  the  Right  Way,  Illustration  of Page  71 

Instantaneous   Exposures    180-183 

Intensifying  and   Reducing    305-312 

Intensifying,  Definition  of  305 

Intensifying   Powder    307,  308 

Intensifying  the  Negative   309 

Intensifying  Thin,  Flat  Negatives,  Result  of Page  179 

Interior  Exposures   184-191 

Iris  Diaphragm   58 

"January  Frost,"  Study  No.  ii,  by  Sweet  Bros Page  339 

Judging  Development   124 

Kallitype  Process 532-556 

Kallitype  Process — Clearing  Solution  550 

Kallitype  Process — Developing  Solutions   545 

Kallitype  Process — Development  544-549 

Kallitype  Process — Fixing  Solution  551 

Kallitype  Process — Important  Pointers  553 

Kallitype  Process — Introduction    532-534 

Kallitype   Process — Manipulating  Results  by  Means  of  the 

Restrainer    554-556 

Kallitype   Process — Paper    538 

Kallitype  Process — Printing   543 

Kallitype  Process,  Sensitizing  Formula  for 536,537 

Kallitype  Process — Sensitizing  the  Paper 541,  542 

Kallitype  Process — Sizing  the  Paper 539,  540 

Kallitype  Process,  Theory  of 535 

Kallitype  Process — Washing,  Final   552 

Kodak  Enlarging  Camera   564 

Kodak  Enlarging  Camera,  Illustration  of  Eastman's Page  281 

Kodak  Film  Tank  253-257 

Kodak  Film  Tank,  Developers  for 263 

Kodak,  Illustration  of  Pocket  Film Page  46 

Kodak  Portrait  Lens   618-621 

Kodak  Portraits  Lens,  Illustration  of Page  303 

Kodak,  Removing  Film  From 197 

Kodak  Roll  Film  Tank,  Illustration  of Page  147 

Kodaks  and  Films 166-226 

Kodaks  and  Films— Difficulties 227-243 

Black  Sections  in  the  Roll  Film 238 

Blank  Spaces  in  the  Developed  Roll  Film 237 

Cut  Films,  Difficulties  with 241 

Development   Difficulties    232 


386  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Difficulties  with  Cut  Films,  Film  Pack,  Etc 241 

Double  and  Blurred  Images 231 

Double  Exposure  on  a  Film 230 

Drying    243 

Film  Pack,  Difficulties  with 241 

Images,  Double  and  Blurred 231 

Loading  Roll  Film  in  Kodak 227,  228 

Pencil  Lines  on  Film 235,236 

Roll  Film,  Loading,  in  Kodak 227,  228 

Securing  Uniform  Exposures  on  Roll  Film 239,  240 

Softening  of  the  Film 242 

Streaks  and  Light  Spots  Caused  During  Development.  233 

Uniform  Exposures  on  Roll  Film,  Securing 239,  240 

White  Spots  on  Film  After  Fixing 234 

Winding  Film  in  Kodak 229 

Kodaks  and  Films— Practice  Work 193-226 

Kodoid  Plates  or  Cut  Films 211,  212 

Lamp,  Dark-room,  Illustration  of Page  72 

Lamp,    Flash    688 

Landscape  and  Architectural  Photography  for  Beginners. .  .647-662 

Landscape,  Ordinary,  Illustration  of  an Page  324 

Landscape  Setting  for  Portrait  Studies,  Illustration  of.... Page  327 

Landscape  Study,  Illustration  of  a  Pleasing Page  332 

Lens,  Anastigmat   51 

Lens,  Enlarging  and  Copying,  Supplementary 608,  609 

Lens  for  Hand  Camera 626 

Lens  for  Snow  Photography 674 

Lens,  Illustration  of  Kodak  Portrait Page  303 

Lens,  Kodak  Portrait  '. 618-621 

Lens,  Meniscus    49 

Lens,  Rapid  Rectilinear  50 

Lens,  Supplementary  Portrait   607 

Lens,  Supplementary  Telephoto  611 

Lens,  To  Test  the 627 

Lens,  Wide-Angle  51 

Lens,  Wide-Angle,  Supplementary  610 

Lenses   49-51 

Lenses  for  Hand  Cameras,  Supplementary 604-621 

Levels  and  Finders   630 

Light  Building  Properly  Photographed,  Illustration  of Page  83 

Light  for  Printing  Developing  Papers,  Artificial 443 

Liquid  Capacity  of  Ingento  Tanks 340 

Lithography,  History  of   16 

Loading  Block — Eastman  Plate  Tank — Illustration  of Page  189 


General  Index.  387 

Loading  Eastman  Plate  Tank,  Illustration  of Page  189 

Loading  Ingento  Tank  With  Plates 338 

Loading  Printing  Frame,  Illustration  of Page  203 

Loading  the  Plate  Holder 103,104 

Loading  the  Plate  Holder,  Illustration  of Page  75 

Loading  the  Printing  Frame 353,  354 

Loading  the  Printing  Frame — Developing  Papers 444-447 

Lowering  Onto  the  Bath— Sensitizing  the  Paper — Illustra- 
tion of  Page  211 

Lowering  Rack  Into  Solution— Eastman  Plate  Tank— Illus- 
tration of  Page  190 

Low  Horizon  Line  Emphasizing  Size  of  Building  (School 

House)     Page  323 

Luxo  Flash  Powder 682,  683 

Magazine  Cameras   43 

Making  the  Enlargement 565 

Marine  Snap-shot,  Illustration  of  a Page  328 

Meaning  of  Photography 1-33 

Meniscus  Lenses  49 

Meters,   Exposure    640-642 

Method  of  Picking  up  Prints  After  Applying  Paste,  Illus- 
tration of  Page  244 

Mount,  Size  of 599 

Mount,  Texture  of 600 

Mount,  Tone  and  Color  of 601 

Mounting  Developing  Paper  Prints 468 

Mounting,   Double    602 

Mounting  Glossy  Prints 400-405 

Mounting  Prints    598 

Mounting,  Trimming  and 594-603 

Mounting  Water  Tone  Platinum  Prints 488 

Mounts  of  Varying  Sizes,  Illustration  of  Prints  of  One  Size 

on    Page  295 

Negative,  A  Correctly  Developed  Over-exposed,  Illustration 

of Page  183 

Negative,  An  Under-exposed,  Correctly  Developed,  Illustra- 

tration  of  Page  180 

Negative,  Correctly  Exposed  and  Developed,  Print  from  a 

Page  180 

Negative,  Definition  of  a  123 

Negative  from  Which  Illustration  No.  33  was  Printed,  Illus- 
tration of   Page  180 

Negative,  Illuminating  the.  Illustration  of Page  285 

Negative,  Intensifying  the  309 


388  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Negative,   Print   from   an   Over-exposed,   Though   Correctly 

Developed,  Illustration  of   Page  183 

Negative,  Print  from  Under-exposed  and  Correctly  Devel- 
oped,  Illustration  of    Page  184 

Negative,  Quality  of — Aristo  Gold  Paper 494 

Negatives,  Advantage  of  Reducing  Thick — Half  a  Plate  Re- 
duced— Illustration  of Page  179 

Negatives,  Defective,  and  Their  Cause 129-131 , 

Negatives,  Drying  , 279,  294,  295 

Negatives,  Result  of  Intensifying  Thin,  Flat Page  179 

Negatives  With  Different  Exposures,  Appearance  of 313-325 

Non-Curling  Films   169-172 

Normal   Exposure   314-318 

Notes  on  Developing 351 

Obscura,   Camera    15 

Operating  the  Shutter  53-56 

Optical  Outfit,  Ideal  Photo 605-617 

Optical  Outfit,  Illustration  of  Ideal  Photo Page  303 

Outfit,   Developing    100, 101 

Outfit,  Ideal  Photo  Optical 605-617 

Outfit,  Illustration  of  Ideal  Photo  Optical Page  303 

Ordinary  Landscape,  Illustration  of  an Page  324 

Over-development   303,  304 

Over-exposed  Negative  Correctly  Developed,  Illustration  of 

Page  183 

Over-exposure   301,  319-322 

Pack,  Film   213-226 

Paper,  Blue  Print   355-365 

Paper — Blue  Print  Sensitizing   366-374 

Paper  for  Kallitype  Process 538 

Paper,   Sensitizing  the — Lowering  Onto  the   Bath — Illustra- 
tion of  Page  211 

Paper,  Sensitizing  the — Removing  Air-bells — Illustration  of 

Page  211 

Paste,  Formula  for  Making 401 

Paste  Side  of  Print  Into  Contact  With  Mount,  Illustration 

of  Bringmg   Page  244 

Paste  to  Back  of  Print,  Illustration  of  Applying Page  244 

Pasting    603 

Photographic  Printing  352-365 

Photograph  Which  Lacks  the  Expression  of  an  Idea,  Illus- 
tration of  a  Page  327 

Photography,  Elementary  Flashlight   677-699 

Photography,  Elementary  Snow 663-676 


General  Index.  389 

Photography,  History  of  1-33 

Photography,  Meaning  of   1-33 

Photo  Optical  Outfit,  Illustration  of  Ideal Page  303 

Picking    Up    Prints    After   Applying   Paste,    Illustration    of 

Method  of   Page  244 

Picturesque    Snow    Scenes    673 

Placing   the    Camera   for   the    Exposure — Bromide    Enlarg- 
ing   567, 568 

Plate,  Flowing  Developer  on  288 

Plate  Holder,    91,  92 

Plate  Holder,  Illustration  of  Loading  the   Page  75 

Plate    Holder,    Inserting    Slide   in 93,94 

Plate  in  Printing  Frame,  Illustration  of  Dusting Page  203 

Plate  Tank,  Eastman  330-335 

Plate  Tank,  Eastman — Developing — Illustration  of Page  190 

Plate  Tank,  Eastman — Loading  Block — Illustration  of Page  189 

Plate  Tank,  Eastman — Loading — Illustration  of Page  189 

Plate  Tank,  Eastman — Lowering  Rack  Into  Solution — Illus- 
tration of   Page  190 

Plate  Tank,  Eastman — Removing  Plates  from  Rack — Illus- 
tration   of    Page  192 

Plate    Tank,    Eastman — Separating    Plates    After    Removal 

from  Rack — Illustration  of Page  192 

Plates,  Opening  Box  of 102 

Plates  vs.   Films    631 

Platinum  Paper,  Water  Tone 480-490 

Pleasing  Landscape  Study,  Illustration  of  a Page  332 

Pocket  Film  Kodak,  Illustration  of Page  46 

Portrait   Lens,   Kodak 618-621 

Portrait  Lens,  Illustration  of  Kodak Page  303 

Portrait  Lens,  Supplementary  607 

Portrait  Studies,  Illustration  of  Landscape  Setting  for... Page  327 

Portraits  by   Flashlight    691 

Post  Cards,  Artisto  Gold  498-503 

Post  Cards>   Blue   Print  Sensitizing  of 371 

Powder,  Flash   689 

Powder,  Intensifying   307,  308 

Powders  Developing,  for  Developing  Papers 434-436 

Practical  Use  of  the  Camera 647-662 

Practice  Work — Aristo  Self-Toning  Paper 531 

Practice  Work— Blue  Prints  364,  365 

Practice  Work— Elementary  Flashlight  Photography 697-699 

Practice  Work— Kodaks  and  Films    193-226 

Premo  Cut  Film  Developing  Tank 258-262 


390  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Premo  Film  Tank,  Illustration  of Page  147 

Preparing  Chemicals  for  Developer 266-287 

Print  from  a  Correctly  Exposed  and  Developed  Negative ..  Page  180 
Print  from  an  Over-exposed,  Though  Correctly  Developed 

Negative,  Illustration  of  Page  183 

Print  from  an  Under-exposed  and  Correctly  Developed  Nega- 
tive, Illustration  of Page  184 

Print,  Illustration  of  Applying  Paste  to  Back  of Page  244 

Print  Into  Contact  with  Mount,  Illustration  of  Bringing  Paste 

Side  of Page  244 

Printing  and  Developing  Outfit  for  Developing  Papers 441,442 

Printing    and    Toning— Difficulties 406-423 

After-Fixing  Bath,  Bleaching  of  Prints  in 412 

After-Fixing    Bath,    Prints    Continue    to    Tone    in 

Water  Previous  to   421 

After-Fixing  Bath,  Prints  Tone  in 419 

Bath  Tones  Too  Fast 409 

Bath  Tones  Too  Slow 410 

Bath  Too  Cold 408 

Bath  Too  Warm  407 

Bleaching  of  Prints  in  After-Fixing  Bath 412 

Bleaching  of  Prints  in  Toning  Bath 411 

Blue-black  Tone,  Unable  to  Secure  413 

Depth  of  Printing   406 

Milky  Color  of   Bath  After  Toning  a  Number  of 

Prints    415 

Printing,  Depth  of  406 

Prints    Continue    to    Tone    in    Water    Previous    to 

After-Fixing   Bath    421 

Prints  Tone  in  After-Fixing  Bath   419 

Small    Brown   and    Black   Spots    422 

Softening   of   Prints   While   Washing   or  Toning 420 

Spots,    Small   Brown   and   Black    422 

Stains,  Yellow   423 

Straight  Lines  on  Toned  Prints 417 

Toning    Bath    Becoming    Discolored    When    First 

Prepared    414 

Unable  to  Secure  Blue   Black  Tone 413 

Uneven    Tones    416 

Washing  or  Toning,  Softening  of  Prints  While 420 

Weak    Prints    418 

Yellow  Stains  423 

Printing  and  Toning  Gelatin  Printing-out  Papers  375 

Printing  Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards    504 


General  Index.  391 

Printing  Aristo  Gold  Paper    491 

Printing  Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards   499 

Printing  Aristo  Self-toning  Paper    513 

Printing  at  End  of  Table,  Illustration  of    Page  243 

Printing  Developing  Papers 438-440 

Printing  Developing  Papers  by  Artificial  Light     443 

Printing  Frame,  Illustration  of    Page  203 

Printing  Frame,  Illustration  of  Dusting  Plate  in     Page  203 

Printing  Frame,  Illustration  of  Loading Page  203 

Printing  Frame  in  Position,  Illustration  of Page  204 

Printing  Frame,  Loading  the   353,  354 

Printing — Kallitype  Process   643 

Printing  on  Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper 376-380 

Printing-out  Paper,  Gelatin  375-405 

Printing,  Photographic 352-365 

Printing  Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper,  Depth  of 486 

Prints    After    Applying    Paste,    Illustration    of    Method    of 

Picking  up   Page  244 

Prints,   Mounting    598 

Prints   of  One  Size  on  Mounts  of  Various  Sizes,   Illustra- 
tion of  Page  295 

Purple  Tones  on  Aristo  Gold  Paper 493 

Pyro,    Developing    With    266-287 

Pyro,  Formula  for  Developing  With  271-276 

Pyro,    General   Notes    on    ..278 

Rack  and  Pinion  88 

Ray   Filter,    Ideal    612-614 

Rectilinear    Lens    50 

Reducing    310,311 

Reducing   and    Intensifying    305 

Reducing  Solution,  Preparing  the  311 

Reducing    Thick    Negatives,    Advantage    of — Half    a    Plate 

Reduced— Ill-istration  of Page  179 

Reflections,  Avoiding — Snow  Photography  674 

Reflex    Cameras    48 

Regulating  Diaphragm  Openings  63 

Removing  Air-bells — Sensitizing  the  Paper — Illustration  of 

Page  211 

Removing  Films  from  Film  Pack 222 

Removing  Plates  from  Rack — Eastman  Plate  Tank — Illus- 
tration of   Page  192 

Restrainer,  Bromide  of  Potassium  as  a  289 

Restrainer — Developing   Papers    459 

Restraining  Development   281 


392  Library  of  Practical  Photography 

Result  of  Fogging  the  Plate,  Illustration  Showing  the Page  93 

Result  of  Intensifying  Thin,  Flat  Negatives Page  179 

Result  of  Tipping  Camera  Without  Proper  Adjustment  of 

Swing-back    Page  71 

Result  of  Uneven  Development,  Illustration  Showing  the.. Page  93 

Reversible   Back    67 

Rinsing    Films     203 

Rising   and    Falling   Front    82,83 

Rising    Fronts    629 

Roll  of  Film,  Illustration  of Page  72 

Rotary  Shutter 53 

Rotary  Shutter,  Illustration  of Page  53 

Ruby  Light  99 

Salt  Bath  for  Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards 507 

Salt  Bath  for  Aristo  Self-toning  Paper 514,515 

Scale,   Correcting  the  Focusing 78 

Scale   Focusing    73 

Selection  of  Accessories    639 

Self-toning  Paper,  Aristo   510-531 

Sensitizing  Blue  Print  Paper 370-372 

Sensitizing  Formula  for  Kallitype  Process     536,537 

Sensitizing  Sepia  Paper    373,  374 

Sensitizing  the  Paper — Kallitype  Process   541,  542 

Sensitizing  the  Paper — Lowering    Onto    the    Bath — Illustra- 
tion of  Page  211 

Sensitizing  the  Paper — Removing    Air-bells — Illustration    of 

Page  211 

Separating  Plates  After  Removal  from  Rack — Eastman  Plate 

Tank— Illustration  of  Page  192 

Sepia  Paper,  Sensitizing  373,  374 

Sepia  Post  Cards,  Aristo  Carbon 504-509 

Sepia  Tones  on  Aristo  Gold  Paper 492 

Sheets,  Flash 685,  686 

Shutter,   Automatic    56 

Shutter,  Automatic,  Illustration  of Page  53 

Shutter,    Double   Valve    55 

Shutter,  Double  Valve,  Illustration  of Page  53 

Shutter,  Operating  the   53-56 

Shutter,  Rotary 52,  53 

Shutter,  Rotary,  Illustration  of  Page  53 

Shutter,  Single  Valve 52-54 

Shutter,  Single  Valve,  Illustration  of Page  53 

Shutters     52-56,  628 

Silk— Blue  Print  Sensitizing 366-374 


General  Index,  393 

Single  Valve  Shutter  52-54 

Single  Valve  Shutter,  Illustration  of Page  53 

Sink,  Dark-room,  Illustration  of  Page  75 

Size   of   Mount    599 

Size  of  Stops 64 

Sizing  the  Paper  for  Kallitype  Process 539,  540 

Slide  the  Right  Way,  Illustration  of  Inserting Page  71 

Slide  the  Wrong  Way,  Illustration  of  Inserting Page  71 

Sliding    Front    82, 83 

Sliding  Prints  from  Box  Cover  Into  Toning  Bath,  Illustra- 
tion   of    Page  204 

Snap-shot,  Illustration  of  a  Marine  Page  328 

Snap-shot,  Illustration  of  Importance  of  Position  in Page  331 

Snow  Photography — Avoiding  Reflections    674 

Snow  Photography — Developing    675 

Snow  Photography,  Elementary 663-676 

Snow  Photography,  Lens  for 674 

"Snow  Scene,"  Study  No.  12,  by  Carpenter Page  357 

Snow  Scenes,  Picturesque   673 

Solution,  Fixing 118 

Solution,   Preparing  a   Bromide 303 

Solution,  Preparing  the  Reducing 311 

Solutions,  Developing   116, 117 

Squeegeed   Glossy  Prints,  Mounting 400-405 

Squeegeeing  Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper 398,  399 

Stops 57-61 

Stops,  f  System  of 64-66 

Stops,  Size  of  the 64 

Stops,  Uniform  System  of  64-66 

Stops,  Waterhouse   58 

"Street  Performance,"  Study  No.  i,  by  Grace  E.  Mounts. .  .Page  25 

Street  Scene,  Illustration  of Page  324 

Studies,  How  the.  Were  Made Pages  369-372 

Subjects,  Choice  of  636-638 

Suggestions   for   the    Beginner    293 

Sulphite  of  Soda,   General  Notes  on 278 

Supplementary  Lenses  for  Hand  Cameras 604-621 

Supplementary  Ray  Filter  612 

Supplementary  Telephoto  Lens 611 

Supplementary  Wide-angle  Lens 610 

Swing-back 84,    85 

Swing-back,  Result  of  Tipping  Camera  Without  Proper  Ad- 
justment of  Page   71 

Swing-bed    84,   85 


394  Library  of  Practical  Photography. 

Swing,  Double  87 

Swing,   Horizontal    86 

Synopsis  of  Hand  Camera  Work 622-646 

Table  of  Flashlight  Exposures 690 

Tank,  Developers  for  Kodak  Film 263 

Tank  Developing,  Developers  for 341-344 

Tank  Developing  for  Films 244-265 

Tank   Development,   Elementary 326-351 

Tank  Development,  Principle  of 327 

Tank  Development,  Temperature  for 348 

Tank,  Eastman  Film,  Illustration  of Page  147 

Tank,  Eastman  Plate 330-335 

Tank,  Eastman  Plate — Developing — Illustration  of Page  190 

Tank,  Eastman  Plate — Loading  Block — Illustration  of Page  189 

Tank,  Eastman  Plate — Loading — Illustration  of Page  189 

Tank,  Eastman  Plate — Lowering  Rack  Into  Solution — Illus- 
tration of Page  190 

Tank,  Eastman  Plate — Removing  Plates  from  Rack — Illus- 
tration of   Page  192 

Tank,    Eastman   Plate — Separating    Plates    After   Removal 

from  Rack — Illustration  of Page  192 

Tank,  Filling  the  Developing 345,  346 

Tank,  Ingento  Automatic  Developing 336-338 

Tank,   Kodak   Film 253-257 

Tank,  Kodak  Roll  Film,  Illustration  of Page  147 

Tank,  Premo  Cut  Film  Developing 258-262 

Tank,  Premo  Film,  Illustration  of Page  147 

Tanks,  Illustration  of  Ingento  Automatic  Developing Page  193 

Tanks,  Liquid  Capacity  of  Ingento 340 

Telephoto  Lens,  Supplementary 611 

Temperature  for  Tank  Development 348 

Temperature,  General  Notes  on 278 

Temperature  of  Bath  for  Toning  Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper 382 

Temperature  of  Developer 292 

Temperary  Dark-room,  Illustration  of  a Page  72 

Testing  the  Exposure — Bromide  Enlarging 571,  572 

Testing   the   Focus 75-77 

Test  the  Camera,  How  to 625 

Test  the  Focus,  How  to 624 

Test  the  Lens,  To 627 

Texture   of  Mount 600 

Theory  of  Kallitype  Process 535 

Three  Good  Rules 296 

Timing  Exposures 55 


General  Index.  395 

Tone  and  Color  of  Mount 601 

Toning  Bath,  Illustration  of  Sliding  Prints  from  Box  Cover 

Into    Page  204 

Toning  Blue  Prints 359 

Toning— Difficulties  (See  Printing  and  Toning— Difficulties) .  406-423 

Toning  Gelatin  Printing-out  Paper 381-392 

Tray  for  Toning,  Cleaning 496,  497 

Trim,  How  to   597 

Trim,  Where  to 595, 596 

Trimming  and  Mounting 594-603 

Trimming  Prints — Developing  Papers 467 

Tripod   89,    90 

Tripod,  Illustration  of  Adjustable Page    71 

Under-development 300 

Under-exposed   and   Correctly   Developed   Negative,  Print 

from.  Illustration  of Page  184 

Under-exposed,  Correctly  Developed  Negative,  Illustration 

of  an   Page  184 

Under-exposure    298-299,  323-325 

Under-exposures,  Developing  282 

Uneven  Development,  Illustration  Showing  the  Result  of.. Page    93 

Uniform  System  of  Stops 64-66 

Universal  Focus   71 

Use  of  Diaphragm 60,   61 

"Valambrosa,"  by  Phillips  Frontispiece 

View  Cameras   47 

"Wading  the  Stream,"  Study  No.  9,  by  Chislett Page  249 

Washing  After  Development 297,  350 

Washing  Aristo  Carbon  Sepia  Post  Cards 505 

Washing  Aristo  Gold  Post  Cards 500, 502 

Washing  Developing  Paper  Prints 465,  466 

Washing  Films  206, 207 

Washing,  Final — Kallitype  Process  552 

Washing — Gelatin   Printing-out  Papers 397 

Water,  General  Notes  on 278 

Waterhouse  Stops   58 

Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper 480-490 

Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper — Clearing  Bath 487 

Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper — Depth  of  Printing 486 

Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper— Effect  of  Moisture 481-483 

Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper,  Keeping,  in  Good  Condition.. 484, 485 

Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper,  Mounting 488 

Water  Tone  Platinum  Paper — Suggestions 489, 490 

Wet  Collodion  Plate,  Origin  of 25 


3%  Library  of  Prmctical  Photography. 

When  is  a  Plate  Developed? 283-287 

Where  to  Trim 595 

Wide-angle   Lens    51 

Wide-angle  Lens,  Supplementary 610 

"Winter  Afternoon,"  Study  No.  6,  by  Krantz Page  171 

"Winter  Stream,"  Study  No.  lo,  by  Weeks Page  297 


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rights  of  others  is  enabling  the  library  to 
fill  requests  promptly. 


TAS,  Fort  Sill,  Okla.,  (10-12-49— 20,000)— 6330 


